Introduction: The Hidden Land of Yellow Lamas

Nestled in the rugged mountains where Sichuan meets Yunnan and Tibet, the mysterious territory of Muli remained largely unknown to the Western world until the early 20th century. This remote Buddhist kingdom, ruled by its powerful Yellow Hat lamas, developed a unique political and religious system that blended Tibetan Buddhism with local indigenous traditions. European explorers like Joseph Rock, who photographed the magnificent Muli Monastery in 1924, provided rare glimpses into this isolated realm where spiritual and temporal power merged under the authority of the Grand Lama.

Historical Origins of Muli’s Lamaist Rule

The origins of Muli’s distinctive lamaist governance trace back to the complex political landscape of imperial China’s southwestern frontier. Historical records suggest two possible founding narratives preserved by the lamas themselves. One version claims the first Muli lamas received imperial recognition after providing valuable service to the Qing emperor, while another maintains their authority originated when a lama successfully treated the illness of the local Tachienlu chieftain.

What remains certain is that by the 18th century, Muli had developed into a semi-autonomous theocratic state under the Gelugpa (Yellow Hat) school of Tibetan Buddhism. The Qing court institutionalized this arrangement, granting the Muli lamas both religious prestige and administrative authority over their mountainous domain. This delicate balance of local autonomy and imperial oversight characterized much of China’s frontier governance during the Qing dynasty.

The Theocratic Government of Muli

At the heart of Muli’s political system stood the Grand Lama, known as the Khenpo, who combined spiritual leadership with secular governance. Unlike the Dalai Lama’s reincarnation system, Muli’s leadership passed through familial lines – when a Grand Lama died, his successor was chosen from among his brothers or nephews, provided they were at least 18 years old.

This succession required formal approval from the Qing emperor in Beijing, demonstrating the intricate relationship between local religious authority and imperial power. The Grand Lama administered his realm through three main monastic centers at Muli, Lakang, and Gan, each housing between 100-450 monks. He would rotate his residence annually among these centers to maintain connection with different parts of his territory.

The administration mirrored monastic hierarchies, with lower-ranking lamas handling specific governmental functions:
– Finance ministers overseeing taxation and resources
– Supply officers managing food distribution
– Village headmen (the only non-monastic officials) handling local affairs

Economic Foundations and Imperial Relations

Muli’s economy rested on agriculture, animal husbandry, and its rich gold deposits. The steep mountain slopes surrounding the monasteries supported crops of barley, rye, and buckwheat, while preserved grasslands fed herds of yaks and goats. Gold mining formed a crucial part of the local economy and imperial revenues, with mined gold traded in regional markets like Tachienlu and Litang.

The Grand Lama maintained Muli’s connection to the Qing empire through several mechanisms:
– Regular tax payments calculated based on agricultural productivity
– Labor obligations imposed on the local population
– A 12-year pilgrimage cycle that took the lama to Wutai Shan and Beijing
– Tribute offerings of gold and furs presented to the emperor

These economic and political ties ensured Muli’s position within the Qing imperial system while preserving its local autonomy.

The Architectural Splendor of Muli Monastery

Perched dramatically on a forested mountainside, Muli Monastery embodied Tibetan Buddhist architectural traditions adapted to the local environment. The complex featured:

– Whitewashed, two-story buildings with characteristically small windows
– A striking golden-roofed main temple serving as the ritual center
– Careful siting creating a visually stunning layered effect when viewed from the southeast
– Strict gender prohibitions barring women from entering sacred spaces

Surrounding the monastery, the landscape combined practical and sacred elements:
– Cultivated fields producing monastic supplies
– Preserved forests housing wildlife protected by religious taboo
– A small river flowing northeast to southwest past the monastery

Religious Life and Cultural Practices

Daily rituals at Muli Monastery followed strict Gelugpa traditions. Visitors described mesmerizing chanting ceremonies that could last continuously for eleven days, with monks rotating in shifts to maintain constant prayer. The monastic community of about 450 monks (including novices) maintained rigorous discipline:

– Strict vegetarianism during the Grand Lama’s annual residence period
– Prohibitions on smoking and other indulgences
– Specialized education making monks the primary literate class

Funerary practices reflected Tibetan Buddhist influences:
– Cremation for lamas, with ashes preserved in ceramic urns
– Sky burials or river disposals for most commoners
– Later adoption of Han Chinese influenced burial practices along the Yangtze

Ethnic Diversity and the Mosuo Connection

Muli’s population comprised several ethnic groups living under lamaist rule:
– Tibetans forming the dominant cultural group
– Han Chinese migrants and officials
– Yi and Miao minorities
– The distinctive Mosuo people occupying nearby Yongning

The Mosuo developed particularly close ties with Muli’s Tibetan culture while maintaining their own unique social structures, most notably their matrilineal system and “walking marriage” traditions.

The Mosuo People: A Matrilineal Society

South of Muli, in the Yongning region, the Mosuo people developed one of Asia’s most fascinating kinship systems. Unlike the patriarchal norms of surrounding societies, Mosuo culture centered around:

– Matrilineal descent tracing family lines through women
– Matrilocal residence with husbands visiting wives’ households
– Flexible “walking marriages” without formal wedlock
– Women controlling household resources and decision-making

British observers noted with fascination how Mosuo women:
– Wore the family’s wealth as elaborate silver and silk headdresses
– Managed agricultural production and domestic affairs
– Often maintained relationships with multiple partners

Unique Marriage Customs Across the Region

The eastern Himalayas presented European travelers with surprising diversity in marriage patterns:

Highland Areas (like Muli):
– Predominance of fraternal polyandry (multiple brothers sharing one wife)
– Driven by limited arable land and harsh living conditions
– Maintained family estates by limiting heirs

Mosuo Valleys:
– Matrilineal “walking marriages” without cohabitation
– Children raised in mother’s household with uncles’ support
– Romantic relationships based on mutual affection

Wealthy River Valleys:
– More conventional monogamy or polygyny
– Influenced by Han Chinese cultural norms
– Greater accumulation of private property

Colonial Encounters and Western Perceptions

European explorers like the unnamed British author and Joseph Rock provided some of the first Western accounts of Muli. Their narratives reveal both cultural fascination and misunderstanding:

– Initial difficulties communicating through Tibetan dialect variations
– Surprise at the lamas’ political authority
– Fascination with monastic architecture and rituals
– Amusement at local reactions to European artifacts (like the treasured sardine can)

These accounts, while valuable historical sources, often filtered indigenous practices through Victorian moral frameworks, particularly regarding marriage customs.

The Legacy of Muli’s Lamaist Kingdom

Though the Qing empire collapsed in 1911, Muli’s unique political system persisted into the 20th century before gradual integration into modern China. Today, the region offers important insights into:

– Alternative models of Buddhist governance
– Imperial frontier management strategies
– Ethnic coexistence in multicultural regions
– Sustainable mountain agriculture

The magnificent Muli Monastery, though damaged during China’s turbulent 20th century, remains a testament to this remarkable borderland kingdom where lamas once ruled as both priests and princes.

Conclusion: Remembering a Forgotten Realm

The story of Muli and its neighboring Mosuo territories provides a fascinating case study in Himalayan borderlands history. This remote region developed unique solutions to universal human challenges – organizing political authority, distributing resources, structuring families, and understanding life’s spiritual dimensions. While Western observers initially viewed practices like polyandry or matrilineality as exotic curiosities, modern scholarship recognizes them as rational adaptations to specific environmental and historical conditions.

As we reconsider these forgotten chapters of Himalayan history, we gain not only richer understanding of human cultural diversity, but also alternative perspectives on our own social arrangements. The lama-kings of Muli and the matriarchs of Mosuo society remind us that human communities have flourished under many different systems – each offering valuable insights into the endless creativity of human social organization.