The Triumph of Science and the Crisis of Faith in the Mid-19th Century

The Age of Scientific Confidence

The third quarter of the 19th century was a period of remarkable self-assurance for capitalist societies, particularly in their faith in scientific progress. The educated elite of this era viewed science—understood as the advancement of knowledge—as humanity’s greatest achievement. Philosophers, once towering intellectual figures, found themselves sidelined. Even in Germany, the birthplace of modern philosophy, no thinker emerged who could rival the giants of previous generations. Hegel, once celebrated, was now dismissed by critics like Hippolyte Taine as a “deflated balloon” of German idealism. Meanwhile, figures like Herbert Spencer gained global influence despite their intellectual mediocrity.

The dominant philosophical currents of the time were French positivism and British empiricism, both of which positioned themselves as extensions of scientific thought. Auguste Comte’s positivism, with its belief in immutable natural laws and the possibility of absolute knowledge, sought to replace theology and metaphysics with a scientific worldview. John Stuart Mill’s empiricism, though less dogmatic, similarly emphasized observation and inductive reasoning. Many believed that science had rendered philosophy obsolete, reducing it to a mere auxiliary role in intellectual inquiry.

The Illusion of Finality in Science

This confidence in scientific progress sometimes bordered on hubris. Lord Kelvin (William Thomson), a preeminent physicist, famously declared that while minor details remained unresolved, the fundamental laws of physics had been discovered. This belief would soon be upended by the discoveries of relativity and quantum mechanics in the 20th century. Yet, such overconfidence was understandable. The mid-19th century was not a revolutionary period in science but one of consolidation and refinement.

Physics, chemistry, and biology all saw significant advancements. Thermodynamics unified heat and energy, while James Clerk Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory of light laid the groundwork for modern physics. Chemistry, particularly organic chemistry, flourished due to its industrial applications—dyes, fertilizers, and explosives. Dmitri Mendeleev’s periodic table (1869) brought order to the elements, predicting undiscovered ones with remarkable accuracy.

Biology, though lagging behind physics and chemistry, experienced its own revolution with Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species (1859). Darwin’s theory of natural selection provided a coherent explanation for the diversity of life, challenging religious dogma and traditional views of human exceptionalism. His ideas, though controversial, gained rapid acceptance among progressive thinkers, reinforcing the era’s belief in evolutionary progress.

The Social and Cultural Impact of Scientific Thought

Science did not merely reshape intellectual discourse; it permeated social and cultural life. The rise of social sciences—sociology, anthropology, and psychology—reflected attempts to apply scientific methods to human behavior. Herbert Spencer’s social Darwinism, though flawed, sought to explain societal development through biological analogies. Meanwhile, racial theories, often masquerading as science, were used to justify colonialism and class hierarchies.

The conflict between science and religion intensified. Darwinism, in particular, provoked fierce opposition from religious conservatives who saw it as an attack on divine creation. Yet, secularism gained ground, especially among urban populations and the educated elite. Anti-clerical movements, particularly in Catholic countries, sought to reduce the Church’s influence over education and civil institutions.

The Legacy of 19th-Century Scientism

The late 19th century’s faith in science was both its greatest strength and its blind spot. While it fostered unprecedented technological and intellectual progress, it also bred complacency. The assumption that all fundamental truths had been discovered left science unprepared for the upheavals of the 20th century—Einstein’s relativity, Freud’s psychology, and the chaos of World War I.

Moreover, the misuse of scientific ideas to justify racism, imperialism, and social inequality revealed the dangers of conflating empirical inquiry with ideological agendas. Yet, the period also laid the foundations for modern disciplines, from genetics (Mendel’s overlooked pea experiments) to anthropology (Tylor’s studies of “primitive” cultures).

In the end, the mid-19th century stands as a pivotal moment when science eclipsed religion as the dominant framework for understanding the world—a shift whose consequences still shape our debates today.