A Dynasty in Decline: The Inheritance of a Failing Empire
When Emperor Xianfeng ascended the throne in 1850, he inherited an empire already teetering on the brink of collapse. The Qing Dynasty, once a formidable force under the reign of his grandfather, the Qianlong Emperor, had been weakened by corruption, internal strife, and external pressures. Xianfeng’s father, the Daoguang Emperor, had struggled to maintain stability, particularly after the humiliating defeat in the First Opium War (1839–1842), which forced China to cede Hong Kong and open treaty ports to foreign powers.
Xianfeng’s first act as emperor was to purge his father’s old ministers, replacing them with loyalists who shared his conservative and isolationist worldview. Among his inner circle were his nephew Prince Yi Zaiyuan, the Manchu nobleman Sushun, and other reactionary figures who despised foreign influence. This new regime doubled down on xenophobia, reversing even the limited openness of the Daoguang era. The emperor’s court became a fortress of traditionalism, shutting out the world at a time when engagement might have averted disaster.
Crisis Upon Crisis: Natural Disasters and Rebellion
Xianfeng’s reign was plagued by misfortune from the outset. Shortly after his coronation, he violated the Treaty of Nanjing by closing the Fuzhou trading port, provoking British ire. Meanwhile, natural disasters struck with devastating force: famine ravaged Beijing and its surrounding regions, an earthquake shook Sichuan, and the Taiping Rebellion erupted in southern China. Led by the self-proclaimed “Heavenly King” Hong Xiuquan, the Taiping movement quickly swelled into a full-scale civil war, seizing Nanjing in 1853 and declaring it their capital.
While Xianfeng could not be blamed for these calamities, his response was woefully inadequate. His government lacked the resources and will to suppress the Taiping effectively, allowing the rebellion to fester for over a decade. At the same time, his court’s refusal to engage diplomatically with Western powers sowed the seeds for further conflict.
The Rise of a Concubine: Cixi’s Path to Power
Amid the chaos, a young woman named Yehenara—later known as Empress Dowager Cixi—began her ascent. Born into a modest Manchu family, she was selected through the Eight Banners system to enter the Forbidden City as a low-ranking concubine. Though initially a fifth-tier “Noble Lady,” her beauty and intelligence caught Xianfeng’s eye. By 1856, she had risen to the rank of “Consort Yi” and, crucially, bore the emperor his only surviving son, the future Tongzhi Emperor.
This achievement elevated her status dramatically. In a court where producing a male heir was paramount, Cixi secured her position as the second most powerful woman in the palace, behind only Empress Dowager Ci’an. Unlike many imperial consorts, Cixi displayed a keen political acumen, learning to read and write—a rare skill among Manchu women—and absorbing statecraft through the eunuchs who controlled palace affairs.
The Arrow War and the Humiliation of Beijing
Xianfeng’s isolationist policies reached a breaking point in 1856 with the Arrow Incident. When Chinese authorities in Guangzhou seized a British-registered ship (the Arrow) on suspicion of smuggling, tensions exploded into the Second Opium War. The conflict exposed the Qing court’s incompetence: officials like Governor Ye Mingchen misled Xianfeng, downplaying British military strength. By 1860, Anglo-French forces had captured Beijing, forcing the emperor to flee to the summer palace at Rehe.
The war’s most infamous episode was the burning of the Old Summer Palace (Yuanmingyuan), ordered by Lord Elgin in retaliation for the torture and execution of Western envoys. The destruction of this cultural treasure—a sprawling complex of gardens, pavilions, and European-designed palaces—symbolized China’s humiliation. The subsequent Treaty of Tientsin (1858) and Convention of Beijing (1860) forced the Qing to accept foreign diplomats in the capital, open more ports, and pay massive indemnities.
The Emperor’s Flight and the Rise of Cixi’s Influence
Xianfeng’s retreat to Rehe marked a turning point. Physically and mentally broken, he left his brother, Prince Gong, to negotiate with the invaders. Meanwhile, Cixi—now a key advisor—witnessed firsthand the consequences of weak leadership. When Xianfeng died in 1861, she and Ci’an orchestrated a coup with Prince Gong, ousting the regents and establishing themselves as co-regents for the boy emperor Tongzhi.
This partnership, surprisingly harmonious given palace intrigues, allowed Cixi to consolidate power. Ci’an, often portrayed as passive, provided legitimacy, while Cixi’s political instincts sharpened. Her early reign was pragmatic: she supported Prince Gong’s “Self-Strengthening Movement,” which sought to modernize China’s military and industry while preserving Confucian values.
Legacy: The Seeds of Modern China’s Struggles
Xianfeng’s reign was a disaster, but it set the stage for Cixi’s 47-year dominance. Her rule, beginning in the shadow of foreign invasion, was defined by a paradox: she recognized the need for modernization yet clung to tradition, a tension that would culminate in the Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901) and the dynasty’s eventual collapse in 1911.
The Arrow War and the burning of Yuanmingyuan left deep scars, fueling nationalist resentment that persists today. Meanwhile, Cixi’s rise—from concubine to de facto ruler—revealed the Qing court’s adaptability, even as its refusal to fully reform ensured its downfall. In the end, Xianfeng’s failures and Cixi’s ruthless pragmatism shaped China’s turbulent entry into the modern world.