The Fall of the Sassanids and the Arab Onslaught

The Battle of Nahavand in 642 CE marked a pivotal moment in Iranian history—the definitive collapse of the Sassanid Empire and the beginning of Arab-Islamic domination. For the next 219 years, until the rise of the Saffarid dynasty in 861, Iran endured what many historians call the “Two Centuries of Silence.” During this period, the conquered Persian territories were administered directly by Arab governors appointed by the caliphs. Arabic became the official language, while Persian was often suppressed in public spaces.

The Arab conquest was initially driven by military expansion and tribal ambitions under the Rashidun Caliphs—Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman (644–656), and Ali (656–661). Early Islamic rule presented itself as egalitarian, a message spread by Salman the Persian, a former Zoroastrian and Christian who became a close advisor to Prophet Muhammad and later Caliph Umar. His preaching emphasized Islam’s unity and equality, convincing many Iranians to convert by reciting the Shahada: “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His messenger.”

The Umayyad Oppression and Iranian Resentment

The transition to Umayyad rule in 661 shattered any illusions of equality. The new regime institutionalized Arab supremacy, relegating non-Arabs—even Muslim converts—to second-class status as mawali (clients). Persian resentment grew under policies of racial segregation: Iranians were forced to wear identifying marks, yield pathways to Arabs, and accept that an Arab’s testimony always outweighed theirs. Some accounts describe governors branding converts or confiscating their property.

Violence further fueled hatred. After the Siege of Shushtar, Zoroastrians who refused conversion were massacred. In Nishapur, despite promises of amnesty, Arab troops looted and slaughtered civilians from dawn to dusk. While Persian chronicles may exaggerate, these narratives reflect a climate of systemic brutality.

Arab Migration and Cultural Assimilation

Despite oppression, Arab migration into Iran intensified under the Umayyads. Fleeing poverty, tribes settled in fertile regions like Khuzestan and Khorasan. Governors brought entourages, seizing abandoned estates of fleeing nobles. By 683, many Arabs adopted Persian dress and customs, even abandoning Arabic—defying caliphal decrees.

A pivotal moment came in 680 with the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali at Karbala. His followers, persecuted by the Umayyads, found refuge in Iran. This alliance between Shi’a Islam and Persian dissent sowed seeds for future resistance.

Intellectual and Armed Resistance

The Umayyad’s racism spurred anti-Arab intellectual movements. Persian scholars, writing in Arabic, highlighted the achievements of Rome, India, and China while dismissing Arab contributions. This cultural defiance dovetailed with armed uprisings:

– Behafarid of Khorasan: A self-proclaimed prophet who blended Zoroastrian and Islamic rituals, mandating sun prayers and wealth redistribution.
– Al-Muqanna (“The Veiled One”): A rebel leader who claimed divine miracles, rallying anti-Umayyad forces until his dramatic suicide to avoid capture.
– Babak Khorramdin: Leading a 22-year revolt, Babak merged Zoroastrian, Manichaean, and Mazdakite ideals, nearly toppling Arab rule before his betrayal in 786.

Legacy: From Silence to Revival

The “Two Centuries of Silence” was anything but passive. Beneath Arab rule, Persian identity persisted through covert cultural preservation and rebellions. By the 9th century, the Saffarids and later Samanids revived Persian language and governance, blending Islamic and pre-Islamic traditions.

Today, this era symbolizes resilience—a testament to how conquered peoples can resist erasure. The Shi’a-Persian alliance endures in modern Iran, while Babak and Al-Muqanna remain folk heroes. Their struggles remind us that history’s “silent” periods often roar with defiance.