The Collapse of Empires and the Birth of Ukrainian Nationalism

The early 20th century marked a pivotal moment for Ukrainian nationalism. While political movements had existed before World War I, the collapse of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian Empires in 1917–1918 created an unprecedented opportunity for Ukrainian statehood. The vacuum left by imperial disintegration allowed multiple Ukrainian political entities to emerge, each claiming sovereignty. However, this period was marked by chaos—foreign invasions, civil wars, and ideological conflicts prevented the establishment of a stable central government.

Ukraine’s territorial fragmentation further complicated matters. By the 1920s, most of Ukraine was absorbed into the Soviet Union, while western regions were divided among Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Romania. Despite this, the dream of an independent Ukraine persisted, resurfacing dramatically in 1991 with the USSR’s dissolution.

The 1917 Revolution and the Rise of the Central Rada

The Ukrainian Revolution began amid the turmoil of the Russian Revolution. In March 1917, protests in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) over food shortages and war fatigue forced Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate. The Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet formed a fragile “dual power” structure, but in Ukraine, a “triple power” dynamic emerged, involving:
– The Provisional Government (loyal to Russia)
– Local Soviets (pro-Bolshevik councils)
– The Central Rada (Ukrainian nationalist assembly)

On March 17, 1917, Ukrainian activists established the Central Rada in Kyiv, electing historian Mykhailo Hrushevsky as its leader. The Rada demanded autonomy within a federalized Russia, not full independence. Its support grew rapidly; by summer, 300,000 soldiers pledged loyalty, and massive rallies displayed blue-and-yellow flags. However, the Rada faced legitimacy challenges—it was unelected and struggled to enforce policies.

The First Universal and the Path to Sovereignty

On June 23, 1917, the Rada issued its First Universal, declaring Ukrainian autonomy while maintaining ties to Russia. Key points included:
– Self-governance for Ukrainian territories
– A future elected assembly to determine Ukraine’s political system
– Land reforms to appease peasants

The Provisional Government rejected these demands, but the Rada pressed forward, forming a General Secretariat (government) led by socialist Volodymyr Vynnychenko. However, internal divisions and failed land reforms weakened its authority.

The Bolshevik Threat and the Ukrainian People’s Republic

After the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia in October 1917, the Rada proclaimed the Ukrainian People’s Republic (UPR) on November 20. The UPR introduced national symbols—a flag, anthem, and currency—many of which were revived in 1991.

Bolshevik forces, however, refused to recognize Ukrainian independence. In December 1917, they established a rival Ukrainian Soviet Republic in Kharkiv. By February 1918, Bolshevik troops captured Kyiv, forcing the Rada to flee. Desperate, the UPR turned to Germany and Austria-Hungary, signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in February 1918. In exchange for food supplies, the Central Powers recognized Ukraine’s independence, enabling the UPR to reclaim Kyiv.

The Hetmanate and German Occupation

Germany, dissatisfied with the socialist-leaning UPR, orchestrated a coup in April 1918, installing Pavlo Skoropadsky as Hetman. His regime:
– Restored conservative policies (landowner rights, censorship)
– Promoted Ukrainian culture (schools, universities, the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences)
– Relied heavily on German military support

Skoropadsky’s rule was unpopular. Peasant uprisings erupted over grain requisitions, and by December 1918, German forces withdrew following their WWI defeat. The Hetmanate collapsed, replaced by the Directory, a socialist-nationalist government led by Symon Petliura.

Western Ukraine’s Struggle and the Polish-Ukrainian War

In Habsburg-ruled Galicia, Ukrainians declared the West Ukrainian People’s Republic (WUPR) on November 1, 1918. However, Polish forces seized Lviv, sparking a brutal war. Despite a brief unification with the UPR in January 1919, the WUPR was crushed by Poland by July 1919. The 1921 Treaty of Riga solidified Polish control over Galicia.

The Directory’s Downfall and Soviet Victory

The Directory’s rule was plagued by:
– Military defeats against the Bolsheviks and Whites
– Peasant anarchist movements (e.g., Nestor Makhno’s Black Army)
– Anti-Jewish pogroms (blamed on Petliura’s forces)

By 1920, the Bolsheviks, offering land reforms and Ukrainian-language concessions, secured control. The 1921 Peace of Riga divided Ukraine between Poland and the Soviet Union.

Legacy: The Soviet Era and Beyond

The Ukrainian Revolution failed to achieve lasting independence, but it established key precedents:
– The 1922 Ukrainian SSR retained nominal sovereignty within the USSR.
– National institutions (e.g., the Academy of Sciences) endured.
– The 1991 independence movement drew direct inspiration from 1917–1921.

For modern Ukraine, this period remains a foundational—if tragic—chapter in its nation-building journey.