The Foundations of Qing Power

The Qing Dynasty reached its zenith during the reign of Emperor Qianlong (1735–1796), building upon the stable foundations laid by his predecessors, the Kangxi and Yongzheng Emperors. By the mid-18th century, the empire had expanded to its greatest territorial extent, incorporating vast regions through military conquest and diplomatic maneuvering. Qianlong, proud of his achievements, commemorated his victories in The Record of Ten Complete Military Campaigns, a self-congratulatory account of his military exploits.

The Ten Great Campaigns

### 1. The First Jinchuan War (1747–1749)

The Jinchuan region, located in northwestern Sichuan, was home to Tibetan chieftains who frequently clashed with each other. When the chieftain of Greater Jinchuan, Sonom, rebelled against Qing authority, Qianlong dispatched 30,000 troops to suppress the uprising. After two years of grueling warfare, Sonom surrendered, though the campaign revealed the difficulties of mountain warfare.

### 2. The Conquest of the Dzungars (1755–1757)

The Dzungar Khanate, a powerful Mongol confederation, had long been a rival of the Qing. In 1754, the Dzungar noble Amursana defected to the Qing, providing Qianlong with an opportunity to eliminate the Dzungar threat. A combined Manchu-Mongol force of 25,000 swiftly defeated the weakened Dzungars, capturing their leader Dawachi and effectively ending their empire.

### 3. The Revolt of Amursana (1756–1757)

After the Dzungar defeat, Amursana rebelled, hoping to rule all Mongol tribes. His revolt was short-lived; Qing forces pursued him into Russian territory, where he died of smallpox. Russia refused to return his body, marking a rare diplomatic rebuff for the Qing.

### 4. The Pacification of Xinjiang (1758–1759)

With the Dzungars gone, the Muslim leaders Burhanuddin and Khoja Jihan sought independence in East Turkestan (modern Xinjiang). Qing forces systematically captured oasis cities, culminating in the fall of Yarkand. The brothers fled but were later executed by a neighboring ruler. This campaign secured Xinjiang as “New Territory” for the Qing.

### 5. The Burma Campaign (1765–1769)

Border tensions with Burma’s Konbaung Dynasty led to a costly war. Qing forces suffered from disease and guerrilla tactics, ultimately settling for a negotiated peace that reaffirmed Burma’s tributary status.

### 6. The Second Jinchuan War (1771–1776)

A renewed rebellion by the Jinchuan chieftains required a massive Qing campaign. After five years of brutal fighting, the rebellion was crushed, but at enormous financial and human cost.

### 7. The Suppression of the Taiwan Rebellion (1787–1788)

The Heaven and Earth Society, led by Lin Shuangwen, launched a major uprising in Taiwan. Qing forces swiftly reconquered the island, reinforcing imperial control.

### 8. The Vietnam Campaign (1788–1789)

Qing intervention in Vietnam to restore the Lê Dynasty ended in disaster when Vietnamese forces ambushed and routed the Qing army. Qianlong was forced to recognize Vietnamese independence.

### 9. & 10. The Gurkha Wars (1790–1792)

Nepal’s expansion into Tibet prompted two Qing campaigns. After initial setbacks, the Qing secured Nepal’s tributary submission, reinforcing Tibetan borders.

Cultural and Social Impact

Qianlong’s reign was not just about military conquests. He was a patron of the arts, overseeing the compilation of the Complete Library of the Four Treasuries, an enormous literary project that preserved—and censored—Chinese texts. His lavish construction projects, including the expansion of the Summer Palace and Yuanmingyuan, showcased imperial grandeur.

Legacy and Modern Relevance

Qianlong’s campaigns expanded China’s borders to their greatest historical extent, shaping the territorial foundation of modern China. However, the costs of these wars strained the treasury, foreshadowing later Qing decline. His cultural projects, while impressive, also reflected the dynasty’s tightening ideological control. Today, Qianlong’s era remains a symbol of both imperial glory and the challenges of overextension.

In sum, the Qianlong era was a time of unparalleled expansion and cultural achievement, but also one of immense cost—both in blood and treasure. The legacy of his reign continues to influence China’s historical identity and geopolitical outlook.