The Historical Background of the Zhili-Anhui Conflict

The early 1920s marked a turbulent period in Chinese history when regional warlords carved up the country following the collapse of central authority. The Zhili-Anhui War of July 1920 represented a pivotal moment in this era of fragmentation, pitting two powerful northern military factions against each other in a struggle for control of Beijing.

This confrontation had its roots in the disintegration of Yuan Shikai’s Beiyang government after his failed imperial restoration attempt in 1916. The Beiyang Army fractured into competing cliques, with the Zhili faction led by Cao Kun and Wu Peifu emerging as a major force alongside Duan Qirui’s Anhui faction. Tensions escalated as both groups vied for influence over the weak Beijing government under President Xu Shichang.

The July 1920 Showdown and Its Immediate Aftermath

The conflict erupted in July 1920 when the Zhili faction formed an alliance with Zhang Zuolin’s Fengtian clique to challenge Anhui dominance. The combined forces achieved a decisive victory within days, forcing Duan Qirui to resign all his positions and disband his “National Pacification Army.” This abrupt collapse ended four years of Anhui warlord rule and dramatically reshaped the political landscape.

In the war’s aftermath, Beijing’s central authority became a shared prize between the victorious Zhili and Fengtian factions. Cao Kun established his power base in Baoding while remotely controlling the capital, while Zhang Zuolin, emboldened by his military contributions, operated from Fengtian (Shenyang). President Xu Shichang found himself reduced to a figurehead, requiring approval from both warlords for any significant decisions.

Political Reorganization and Power Struggles

The period from July 22 to August 7, 1920 witnessed sweeping political changes as the new warlord coalition purged Anhui influence. The Beijing government issued a series of orders dismissing Anhui-affiliated officials, abolishing Anhui military organizations, and issuing arrest warrants for key Anhui figures. Notably, Duan Qirui himself escaped punishment due to protection from Xu Shichang and Zhang Zuolin.

The cabinet reshuffle saw Jin Yunpeng appointed as Premier on August 9—a choice designed to balance Zhili and Fengtian interests given his familial connections to both factions. To maintain equilibrium, Xu Shichang abolished some regional military titles while creating new ones that placed Cao Kun and Zhang Zuolin on equal footing as “Inspectors-General” of their respective territories.

The Fragile Zhili-Fengtian Alliance

Beneath the surface of cooperation, tensions simmered between the Zhili and Fengtian factions. Their foreign backers—Britain and America supporting Zhili, Japan backing Fengtian—pursued conflicting interests in China. Personal rivalries also emerged, particularly between Zhang Zuolin and rising Zhili star Wu Peifu, who resented Fengtian’s postwar acquisitions of military supplies.

Wu’s proposal for a “National Assembly” in August 1920 further strained relations. While gaining some public support, the plan faced strong opposition from Xu Shichang, Jin Yunpeng, and especially Zhang Zuolin, who dismissed Wu as merely “one insignificant division commander among many.” Cao Kun ultimately forced Wu to withdraw the proposal, but the incident revealed deepening fractures in the warlord coalition.

The Gathering Storm of Conflict

By 1922, the temporary Zhili-Fengtian alliance was unraveling. Zhang Zuolin strengthened ties with Japan while preparing for future confrontation, telling Japanese officials: “I have no intention of cooperating with Wu Peifu.” Meanwhile, Wu Peifu built up his military forces in Luoyang and cultivated Western connections.

The appointment of Liang Shiyi as Premier in December 1921—a move engineered by Zhang Zuolin—proved particularly controversial. Liang’s pro-Japanese stance during the Washington Conference negotiations over Shandong sparked national outrage and gave Wu Peifu ammunition for his anti-Fengtian campaign. When Liang proposed borrowing from Japan to repurchase the Shandong railway rather than using domestic funds, Wu seized the opportunity to denounce the cabinet as traitorous.

The Legacy of the Zhili-Anhui Transition

The 1920 transition from Anhui to Zhili-Fengtian dominance marked a critical phase in China’s warlord era. It demonstrated how regional militarists could make and unmake central governments while pursuing their own agendas. The fragile power-sharing arrangement between Zhili and Fengtian factions contained the seeds of their future conflicts, particularly as Wu Peifu’s influence grew.

This period also witnessed the failure of federalist “United Provinces” movements that sought to counter warlordism through regional autonomy. While gaining some intellectual support, these efforts were largely co-opted by militarists seeking to legitimize their local rule. The Washington Conference further exposed China’s international weakness, as foreign powers continued to dictate terms on critical issues like Shandong.

Ultimately, the post-1920 political settlement proved temporary. The same forces that had united to overthrow the Anhui clique—competing ambitions, foreign patronage, and ideological differences—would soon turn against each other in the even more destructive Zhili-Fengtian Wars of 1922 and 1924, prolonging China’s descent into warlord-dominated chaos.