The Fracturing of the Beiyang Warlord System

Following Yuan Shikai’s death in 1916, the once-unified Beiyang military clique splintered into competing factions. The three most powerful warlord groups emerged: the Anhui Clique led by Duan Qirui, the Zhili Clique under Feng Guozhang and Cao Kun, and the Fengtian Clique headed by Zhang Zuolin. These factions derived their names from their leaders’ regional origins – Anhui, Zhili (modern Hebei), and Fengtian (modern Liaoning) respectively.

By the eve of the Zhili-Anhui War, these warlords had carved out distinct spheres of influence. The Anhui Clique controlled eight provinces including Shandong, Shanxi, and Zhejiang, along with two special administrative regions. The Zhili faction dominated five provinces including Zhili and Henan, while the Fengtian Clique ruled Manchuria’s three northeastern provinces while expanding southward.

Several factors contributed to this fragmentation:

First, China’s semi-colonial status allowed foreign powers to cultivate regional proxies. After Yuan’s death, imperialist nations supported different warlords to protect their interests, fueling internal conflicts. As Mao Zedong later observed, warlord rivalries reflected the competing interests of foreign powers in China.

Second, China’s backward agrarian economy enabled warlords to establish feudal power bases. Many warlords were major landowners themselves – Duan Qirui, Feng Guozhang, and Zhang Zuolin each owned tens of thousands of acres. They relied on local gentry for support while press-ganging peasants into their armies.

Third, personal rivalries within the Beiyang leadership proved irreconcilable. The two most powerful subordinates, Duan Qirui and Feng Guozhang, had fundamentally different temperaments and grew increasingly antagonistic. Their rivalry became institutionalized after Yuan’s death, with Duan controlling Beijing while Feng consolidated power along the Yangtze.

The Escalating Zhili-Anhui Rivalry

The conflict between Zhili and Anhui factions intensified through several key developments:

In 1917, Duan Qirui attempted to weaken Feng Guozhang by appointing loyalists to strategic governorships. When Feng became Acting President that year, he brought his personal troops to Beijing as protection against Duan. This marked the beginning of open military confrontation between their factions.

The 1918 election crisis revealed the depth of their divide. Duan manipulated the political process to ensure his preferred candidate became president, while Feng allied with southern politicians. Their competing power networks – Duan’s Anhui faction in the north versus Feng’s Zhili-aligned “Yangtze Three Governors” – became clearly delineated.

After Feng’s retirement in 1918, Cao Kun emerged as the new Zhili leader, with the brilliant strategist Wu Peifu as his field commander. Wu’s Third Division became the core of Zhili military power, supported by several mixed brigades totaling over 50,000 troops.

Meanwhile, the Fengtian Clique under Zhang Zuolin grew increasingly influential. Beginning as a local strongman in Manchuria, Zhang expanded his power through strategic alliances and military buildup. By 1919, he controlled all three northeastern provinces as the undisputed “King of the Northeast.”

The Road to War

Several key events precipitated the 1920 conflict:

Wu Peifu’s 1918 “Cease War and Advocate Peace” campaign marked the Zhili faction’s open break with Duan’s pro-war policies. Wu negotiated local truces with southern forces while publicly condemning Duan’s government.

The 1919 “National Salvation Alliance Agreement” secretly united Wu Peifu with southern warlords against their common Anhui enemy. This military pact created an anti-Anhui coalition spanning seven provinces.

Wu’s 1920 withdrawal from Hunan removed a key buffer between north and south. His well-executed troop redeployment to Zhili territory positioned his forces to threaten Beijing directly.

The final trigger came when President Xu Shichang, under Zhili pressure, dismissed Xu Shuzheng – Duan’s right-hand man – from his military posts in July 1920. Duan viewed this as an unacceptable challenge to his authority.

The Military Conflict

When fighting erupted in July 1920, both sides fielded approximately 55,000 troops. The Anhui forces, though better equipped, lacked combat experience. The Zhili army, battle-hardened from years of campaigning, proved more effective in the field.

The decisive battle occurred at Gaobeidian, where Wu Peifu’s brilliant flanking maneuver captured the entire Anhui western front headquarters. This stunning victory demoralized Anhui forces, leading to their rapid collapse.

Zhang Zuolin’s Fengtian army entered the conflict on the Zhili side, sealing the Anhui faction’s defeat. Within five days, the war was over – a remarkably swift conclusion given the years of mounting tensions.

Aftermath and Significance

The war’s consequences were profound:

Politically, it ended Anhui dominance of the Beijing government. Key Anhui leaders were purged, their political organizations disbanded, and their military forces dismantled.

Militarily, it demonstrated the importance of troop quality over equipment. Wu Peifu’s veteran divisions outperformed Duan’s theoretically superior but inexperienced “War Participation Army.”

Strategically, it created a precarious Zhili-Fengtian condominium over northern China, planting seeds for future conflict between these temporary allies.

Internationally, it weakened Japanese influence in China by removing their primary proxy (the Anhui faction), while enhancing the position of British and American-backed Zhili leaders.

The Zhili-Anhui War marked a turning point in China’s warlord era, demonstrating how regional militarism had eclipsed centralized authority. Its legacy would shape Chinese politics for the next decade, as the victorious Zhili faction soon found itself confronting its erstwhile Fengtian allies in an even more destructive conflict.