The 8th century BCE marked a period of dramatic political, social, and economic changes in ancient China. As the central authority of the Zhou kings declined, feudal lords became increasingly independent. Though they still nominally recognized the Zhou king as the “Son of Heaven,” in reality, they ruled their own states like sovereign monarchs, establishing their own courts, armies, and bureaucratic systems.

This era, known as the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, saw the rise of warlords constantly engaging in battles of strategy and deception, forging and breaking alliances at will. Even non-Chinese tribes on the fringes of the Zhou world played a growing role, as they were gradually assimilated into Chinese culture and politics.

The Rise of the Scholar-Warrior Class

One of the most significant social changes of this period was the emergence of a new class—the shi (士). Initially, shi were minor aristocrats who had no land of their own but served as military officers, clerks, and advisors to feudal lords. Over time, intellectual pursuits became more valued, and this class began to produce some of the greatest minds in Chinese history, including Confucius. The shi were the forerunners of the later scholar-officials (文人士大夫), who would dominate Chinese administration for millennia.

Writing, Literature, and the Power of Oral Tradition

During this time, writing was primarily used for official records, rituals, and historical chronicles. Government scribes wrote on bamboo and wooden slips using brushes dipped in ink made from carbon or lacquer. While the written word was vital for administration, literature remained largely oral. Poetry and philosophy were passed down through memorization and recitation at banquets and gatherings, which explains why many ancient Chinese texts, such as Confucian classics, often lack coherence—they were compiled from scattered teachings rather than authored as unified works.

The Birth of a Four-Class Society

As commerce and craftsmanship developed, a more structured social hierarchy emerged. Traditionally, Chinese society was divided into four groups:

  • Shi (scholars and officials)
  • Nong (farmers)
  • Gong (artisans)
  • Shang (merchants)

While farmers were considered the backbone of the state, artisans and merchants gained influence due to the increasing demand for luxury goods. Feudal courts indulged in extravagant displays of wealth, adopting foreign fashions such as wide-legged trousers, likely influenced by neighboring cultures. Seasonal clothing regulations ensured that people changed colors and styles according to the calendar.

Women, Power, and the Art of Intrigue

Contrary to later Confucian ideals that emphasized female submission, Eastern Zhou women—especially those from noble families—often wielded significant influence. Marriages were frequently political tools, and a wife’s connections could determine the fate of a ruler.

Though Confucian texts later idealized the “three obediences” (sancong)—to father before marriage, to husband after marriage, and to son in widowhood—reality was often different. Married women had considerable freedom, engaging in politics from behind the scenes, meeting guests from behind screens, and even influencing court affairs. However, their power could also attract resentment, as seen in the famous verses from the Book of Songs (Shijing) that criticize women and eunuchs for their meddling in state matters.

Sex, Scandals, and Court Intrigues

The chaotic political landscape of the Eastern Zhou fueled a culture of moral laxity. Rulers and nobles maintained harems filled with female entertainers (nü yue), who were often traded as diplomatic gifts or used as bribes in court dealings. Some rulers also kept male favorites (bichen), relationships that may have involved both political favoritism and romantic involvement. The term “Longyang” (龙阳), derived from Lord Longyang, became a classical reference for male-male relationships.

Historical records document numerous cases of romantic and sexual intrigue, including noblewomen having affairs with their stepsons, princes marrying their stepmothers, and courtiers disguising themselves as women to sneak into palaces. One notable example is the infamous case of the Wei noblewoman Nan Zi, whose scandalous behavior was widely mocked—even peasant farmers composed folk songs about her exploits!

From Ancient Politics to Modern Reflections

The Eastern Zhou period laid the groundwork for many aspects of Chinese civilization. The rise of the scholar-official class shaped China’s bureaucratic governance for over two thousand years. The oral tradition of literature helped preserve Confucianism, Daoism, and other schools of thought that continue to influence China and the world today.

Even the era’s political and moral intrigues feel surprisingly modern—scandals, power struggles, and the complex role of women in politics remain relevant. The Eastern Zhou reminds us that while societies evolve, human nature stays remarkably consistent.