The Yuan Dynasty’s Legacy and Early Ming Ambitions
The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) inherited the geopolitical worldview of the preceding Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), which had twice launched failed invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281 (the “Bun’ei” and “Kōan” campaigns). Though unsuccessful, these expeditions reflected the Yuan’s vision of a Sino-centric order where Japan was theoretically part of China’s “tianxia” (all-under-heaven system). When the Ming emerged, Emperor Hongwu (r. 1368-1398) swiftly dispatched envoys to Japan—partly to curb rampant wokou (Japanese pirate) raids along China’s coasts, but fundamentally continuing the Yuan’s conceptual framework of hierarchical foreign relations.
In 1369, Ming envoy Yang Zhao arrived in Kyushu during Japan’s tumultuous Nanboku-chō period (1336-1392), mistakenly presenting imperial credentials to Prince Kanenaga of the Southern Court. The prince, offended by the letter’s threatening tone, executed five of Yang’s entourage and imprisoned him for three months. Despite this violent reception, diplomatic exchanges gradually intensified, revealing to the Ming that the Northern Court under Ashikaga shogunate held greater power. By 1373, Ming Buddhist monks—chosen due to Japan’s reverence for Buddhism—were received in Kyoto, initiating formal negotiations with the Ashikaga.
The Wokou Crisis and Regional Upheavals
Wokou piracy became the central issue in early Ming-Japan relations. These marauders, active since the late Yuan period, ravaged Korea’s coasts before expanding operations to Shandong, Jiangsu, and Fujian. Composed of disenfranchised Japanese (particularly from Tsushima and Iki islands), Korean renegades, and Chinese smugglers, the wokou exploited political instability:
– Korea’s Plight: The wokou crippled the faltering Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392), sacking grain transports and enslaving villagers. Their raids peaked in 1380 when 400-500 ships carrying 3,000-5,000 men attacked.
– Rise of Joseon: Korean general Yi Seong-gye (later King Taejo of Joseon) emerged as a wokou suppressor. His victories, like the 1380 Battle of Unbong, weakened pirate networks. After overthrowing Goryeo in 1392, Yi established the Joseon Dynasty, which implemented conciliatory policies (offering land and titles to former pirates) that further reduced wokou threats.
Meanwhile, the Ming fortified coastal defenses. In 1419, Ming forces delivered a crushing blow to wokou at Wanghaiguo (Liaoning), while Joseon troops attacked Tsushima—the pirates’ stronghold.
The Ashikaga Shogunate’s Calculated Submission
In 1401, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1358-1408), the de facto ruler of Japan, initiated a groundbreaking diplomatic maneuver. Seeking lucrative trade, he dispatched envoys to the Ming, willingly accepting the title “King of Japan” (日本国王) from Emperor Yongle (r. 1402-1424). This symbolic subordination—though controversial in Japan—unlocked the kangō (勘合) tribute system:
– Mechanics of the Kangō Trade: Japan received two sets of 100 tally permits (“日” and “本” characters). Ships bearing matching halves (verified against registry ledgers in Ningbo and Beijing) were authorized for trade.
– Economic Windfall: Japanese exports (swords, sulfur, folding fans) fetched massive profits. A sword worth 800-1,000 mon in Japan sold for 5,000 mon in China. Raw silk, purchased at 250 mon/jin in China, resold for 5,000 mon in Japan—a 20-fold profit.
Between 1404-1547, Japan sent 11 official missions, each involving 150-1,200 personnel. The trade enriched the Ashikaga shogunate, regional daimyō (like the Ōuchi and Hosokawa clans), and merchant hubs (Sakai, Hakata).
The Collapse of Diplomacy and Smuggling Surge
The 1523 “Ningbo Incident” exposed the system’s fragility. Rival Japanese missions—one from Ōuchi clan (using valid tallies) and another from Hosokawa (with expired permits)—clashed violently in Ningbo after the Hosokawa envoy bribed Ming eunuchs for preferential treatment. The Ōuchi delegation retaliated by burning rival ships, killing officials, and pillaging Zhejiang before fleeing by sea. This scandal strained relations, and after the Ōuchi clan’s fall in 1551, official missions ceased.
Meanwhile, clandestine trade flourished:
– Portuguese Arrival: After capturing Malacca (1511), Portuguese traders reached Guangzhou (1517), introducing firearms to Japan (1543) via Tanegashima.
– Silver for Silk: Japan’s 16th-century silver boom (from Iwami Ginzan) attracted Chinese smugglers, especially after Ming’s 1571 silver tax reforms. Key hubs like Yuegang (Fujian) and Shuangyu (Zhejiang) became smuggling epicenters.
The Imjin War (1592-1598): A Clash of Ambitions
Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s 1592 invasion of Korea—aimed at eventual Ming conquest—marked the nadir of East Asian relations. His forces overran Seoul within 20 days and captured two Korean princes. Ming intervention under Li Rusong initially faltered (e.g., the 1593 Battle of Byeokjegwan) but eventually stalemated the war.
Failed Peace Talks: Hideyoshi’s absurd demands—including a Ming princess for the Japanese emperor and Korea’s southern provinces—clashed with Ming terms (recognizing Hideyoshi as a vassal “King of Japan”). The 1596 Osaka negotiations collapsed when Hideyoshi realized the Ming envoys had misrepresented his status.
The war’s aftermath reshaped the region:
– Joseon’s Devastation: Korea lost 20% of its population. Cultural gains included Japanese adoption of Korean pottery (e.g., Satsuma ware) and moveable-type printing.
– Ming’s Decline: The costly war drained Ming resources, hastening its 1644 collapse.
– Manchu Ascent: The Jurchens (future Qing Dynasty) exploited the power vacuum, conquering China by 1644.
Conclusion: A Legacy of Pragmatism and Conflict
Ming-Japan relations oscillated between mutual benefit (tribute trade) and outright hostility (wokou raids, the Imjin War). The kangō system demonstrated how economic pragmatism could temporarily override cultural pride, while Hideyoshi’s megalomania revealed the limits of China’s tributary framework. These interactions laid groundwork for early modern East Asia’s balance of power—a tapestry woven with silk, silver, and blood.