The Collapse of Ming and Rise of Qing: A Bloody Transition
The mid-17th century witnessed one of the most catastrophic transitions in Chinese history as the Ming dynasty collapsed and the Qing dynasty emerged. This period saw approximately 40 million deaths – a staggering 20% of China’s estimated 200 million population at the time. European missionaries present during these upheavals likened the devastation to the Christian concept of the Last Judgment, with corpses littering the landscape across war-torn China.
This dynastic transition created extraordinary challenges for the Jesuit missionaries who had been operating in China since Matteo Ricci’s pioneering efforts in the late Ming period. Without centralized direction from Rome or Macau, individual missionaries had to make agonizing choices about which faction to support during this uncertain period. Their decisions would have lasting consequences for the Catholic mission in China.
Missionaries Divided: Choosing Sides in a Civil War
The Jesuit community found itself fractured along political lines as the Ming-Qing conflict unfolded. Johann Adam Schall von Bell, perhaps the most prominent missionary in Beijing, pragmatically transferred his allegiance to the conquering Qing forces after they entered the capital in 1644. His decision would prove strategically significant for the Jesuit mission.
Other missionaries remained loyal to the Ming cause. Álvaro Semedo steadfastly supported the Southern Ming resistance, following their court in its southward retreat. Martino Martini, based in Zhejiang province, initially sided with the Southern Ming before switching allegiance to the Qing in 1645 when Manchu forces arrived in his region – a change symbolized by his adoption of Manchu-style clothing.
These divergent choices reflected the profound uncertainty of the times. As Martini later wrote: “No one could predict with certainty which side would ultimately prevail.” Each missionary had to assess the situation independently, balancing spiritual concerns with practical survival.
The Southern Ming Hope and European Perceptions
Even after 1650, when Qing military superiority became undeniable, many missionaries in southern China clung to hopes of a Ming restoration. These highly educated priests deeply admired Chinese culture and viewed the Manchus as barbarian invaders – a perspective shaped by European conceptions of the “Tartars.”
The term “Tartar” carried distinctly negative connotations in Europe, associated with primitive peoples from the remote steppes. This cultural bias is preserved even in modern European cuisine – the dish “Steak Tartare,” featuring raw beef topped with a raw egg, reflects traditional European views of Tartar “primitiveness.”
Despite these prejudices, some missionaries achieved remarkable access to the Southern Ming court. Michał Boym and Andreas Xavier Koffler baptized the mother of the Yongli Emperor, giving her the Christian name Helena. Boym even carried letters from the Southern Ming court back to Europe in 1651, attempting to rally military support from European powers for the Ming cause.
The Pragmatic Shift: Accommodating Qing Rule
Martino Martini’s 1650 return to Europe marked a turning point in Jesuit strategy. After extensive consultation, missionaries in Macau concluded that Schall von Bell’s position in the Qing court offered better prospects for the Catholic mission than supporting the fading Southern Ming cause.
Martini’s positive assessment of Manchu rule, based on his direct interactions with Qing officials, helped shift European perceptions. His 1653-1654 European tour included publication of three influential books about China, including “De Bello Tartarico” (The Tartar War), which became European bestsellers translated into multiple languages.
When Martini returned to China in 1656, he brought ten new missionaries – a significant reinforcement for the Jesuit enterprise. His optimistic reports about Qing rule, based on personal experience of Manchu tolerance toward Christianity, helped establish a new paradigm for the mission.
The Jesuit Position Under the Shunzhi Emperor
The young Shunzhi Emperor’s reign (1644-1661) proved remarkably favorable for the Jesuits. Schall von Bell developed an unusually close relationship with the emperor, who affectionately called the German missionary “Grandfather” (Mafa) in Manchu. Other Jesuits like Lodovico Buglio and Gabriel de Magalhães also gained imperial favor through their connections with powerful Manchu families.
This access allowed the Jesuits to operate with unprecedented freedom. The emperor frequently visited Schall’s church and showed keen interest in Western technology and science. However, as Schall himself acknowledged in his letters, Shunzhi’s personal religious devotion remained firmly Buddhist. The emperor invited Buddhist monks to the palace for extended periods and even briefly took monastic vows himself.
The Jesuit-Shunzhi relationship thus remained primarily secular – based on practical service rather than religious conversion. This distinction would prove crucial when political winds shifted after the emperor’s death.
The Calendar Case: A Political Storm
The Jesuits’ golden age ended abruptly in 1664 with the infamous “Calendar Case” (Qingchu liyu). Schall von Bell, then head of the Imperial Astronomical Bureau, faced charges including treason – most stemming from his role in selecting an inauspicious burial site for a deceased imperial prince in 1658.
The accusations were orchestrated by Yang Guangxian, a conservative official who had gained notoriety during the Ming dynasty for his memorials attacking powerful ministers. While most charges against Schall were dismissed, the court found him guilty of improperly calculating the burial site’s feng shui – deemed responsible for the Shunzhi Emperor’s premature death three years later.
Schall was initially sentenced to death by lingchi (slow slicing), but a timely earthquake (interpreted as heavenly disapproval) and intervention by the Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang secured his pardon. The case’s true victims were Chinese officials in the Astronomical Bureau, several of whom were executed.
The Manchu Factor: Beyond East-West Conflict
Traditional historiography often frames the Calendar Case as a clash between Chinese tradition and Western science. However, this interpretation overlooks the crucial Manchu role in the proceedings. The case was adjudicated not by regular judicial bodies but by the Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers – a Manchu-dominated institution.
All case documents were written in Manchu, with Chinese testimony translated rather than preserved in original form. This procedural detail reveals the fundamentally Manchu nature of the proceedings. The case occurred during the regency following Shunzhi’s death, when four Manchu nobles (including the powerful Oboi) controlled the government during the young Kangxi Emperor’s minority.
The Calendar Case reflected broader political struggles between conservative Manchu factions seeking to roll back perceived “Han-ification” of Qing rule and more sinicized elements at court. The Jesuits became collateral damage in this internal Manchu power struggle.
The Shunzhi Legacy: Balancing Manchu and Han Traditions
Shunzhi’s 1661 deathbed edict (possibly drafted by his mother) contained striking self-criticism, blaming his adoption of Han Chinese customs for the dynasty’s problems. This document provided ideological justification for the subsequent conservative turn under the regents.
The young emperor had faced an impossible balancing act – maintaining Manchu identity while ruling a Han-majority empire. His policies vacillated between embracing Chinese administrative traditions and asserting Manchu distinctiveness. The regents who followed him aggressively reversed many sinicizing policies, reducing eunuch power and resisting Chinese cultural influence.
In this context, the attack on Schall von Bell and the Astronomical Bureau represented part of a broader conservative backlash against foreign (including Han Chinese) influences at court. The Jesuits’ position became precarious not because of their religion per se, but because they represented outside cultural forces in a period of Manchu retrenchment.
Jesuit Relations with Chinese Elite
Despite these political storms, the Jesuits maintained strong ties with Chinese scholar-officials. Schall von Bell’s 71st birthday in 1661 attracted congratulatory essays from prominent Beijing literati, later compiled and sent to Europe as evidence of the mission’s success.
These documents reveal how Confucian scholars viewed the Jesuits: as morally upright foreigners whose technical skills deserved respect, much like Buddhist monks who served the Tang dynasty court. The literati appreciated Schall’s astronomical expertise while understanding his ultimate missionary purpose.
This acceptance reflected the syncretic nature of late Ming and early Qing intellectual life, where elite interest in diverse religious traditions coexisted with Confucian orthodoxy. The Jesuits had successfully positioned themselves within this pluralistic environment.
Yang Guangxian: Marginal Critic or Representative Voice?
Yang Guangxian, the architect of the Calendar Case accusations, has often been portrayed as representative of Chinese opposition to Western influence. However, contemporary accounts suggest he occupied a marginal position within the literati community.
Fellow officials like Wang Shizhen dismissed Yang as an unqualified opportunist, noting his ignorance of astronomy despite his attacks on Schall’s calendrical work. Yang’s lack of formal examination degrees made him an outsider in the credential-conscious world of scholar-officials.
Yang’s true expertise lay in traditional Chinese divination methods like ziwei doushu (Purple Star Astrology). His opposition to Schall originated in technical disputes about celestial calculations that affected astrological predictions, not abstract cultural conflicts. The Jesuits’ astronomical reforms inadvertently disrupted established divination systems, threatening practitioners like Yang.
The Jesuit Legacy in Qing China
Despite the Calendar Case’s turmoil, the Jesuit mission survived and even flourished in subsequent decades. The Kangxi Emperor, after assuming personal rule in 1669, rehabilitated Schall von Bell’s reputation and continued employing Jesuit scientists and artists at court.
The early Qing transition period established patterns that would characterize the Catholic mission in China for centuries: dependence on imperial favor, service through technical expertise, and careful navigation of China’s complex political and cultural landscape. The Jesuits’ experience during these turbulent decades demonstrated both the possibilities and perils of their accommodationist approach.
Ultimately, the Ming-Qing transition forced the Jesuits to adapt to a new political reality while maintaining their spiritual goals. Their story during this pivotal era reveals the complex interplay between religion, science, and power in early modern China – themes that continue to resonate in cross-cultural exchanges today.