The Aftermath of Persian Defeat
The Greco-Persian Wars (499–449 BCE) reached a decisive turning point when combined Greek forces repelled Persian invasions at Salamis (480 BCE) and Plataea (479 BCE). Following these victories, Persian forces retreated from Europe, with survivors fleeing to Mycale in Asia Minor only to suffer further defeat. While Spartan king Leotychides returned home with Peloponnesian allies, Athens and newly liberated Ionian Greeks continued campaigning, besieging the Persian-held stronghold of Sestos. By winter’s end, the Persians abandoned Sestos, allowing Athenian forces to secure this strategic Hellespont position before returning to rebuild their war-ravaged city.
Athens lay in ruins after Persian occupation. Only fragments of walls remained, and most buildings were destroyed except residences used by Persian nobles. The Athenians immediately began repatriating displaced families and reconstructing their defenses—a project that would trigger Sparta’s suspicion and set the stage for future conflicts.
Themistocles and the Athenian Wall
Sparta, alarmed by Athens’ growing naval power and post-war prestige, opposed Athenian fortification efforts. Under the pretense of collective security against future Persian attacks, Spartan envoys urged Athens to refrain from rebuilding walls and to join them in dismantling fortifications beyond the Peloponnese.
Themistocles, architect of Athens’ naval victory at Salamis, devised a brilliant stratagem. While delaying negotiations with Sparta, he mobilized all Athenians—men, women, and children—to rapidly construct defensive walls, even dismantling buildings for materials. By the time Spartan inspectors arrived, Athens had erected formidable fortifications. Themistocles boldly declared that a fortified Athens served both Athenian and Greek interests, asserting Athens’ right to self-defense after its sacrifices during the Persian Wars.
The Foundation of Naval Dominance
Themistocles further strengthened Athens by fortifying Piraeus, the city’s natural harbor with three sheltered bays. His vision of Athenian thalassocracy (maritime empire) took shape through:
– Strategic Walls: Piraeus’ walls were built thick enough for two wagons to pass—a defensive masterpiece using interlocking stone blocks reinforced with iron clamps.
– Naval Focus: Recognizing Persia’s maritime threat, Themistocles prioritized naval power, advising Athenians to rely on their fleet if land defenses failed.
This infrastructure became the backbone of Athens’ Delian League (478 BCE), a naval alliance initially formed to counter Persia but gradually transformed into an Athenian empire.
The Delian League and Imperial Expansion
Following Spartan commander Pausanias’ misconduct during campaigns in Cyprus and Byzantium, Ionian Greeks rejected Spartan leadership. Athens assumed control, organizing member states into tributary system:
– Financial Structure: The League treasury, initially on Delos, collected 460 talents annually from allies, funding Athenian-led operations.
– Early Campaigns: Under Cimon’s leadership, Athens expelled Persians from Eion and Skyros, establishing colonies and enforcing membership through military action when Naxos rebelled (471 BCE).
Athenian dominance grew through decisive victories like the Eurymedon River (466 BCE), where Cimon destroyed a Phoenician fleet, and the suppression of Thasian revolt (463–461 BCE). However, heavy-handed policies—converting allies into subjects—sowed resentment.
The First Peloponnesian War and Athenian Ambitions
Athens’ intervention in Sparta’s Helot revolt (462 BCE) backfired when Sparta, distrusting Athenian motives, dismissed their troops. This insult triggered Athens’ realignment:
– New Alliances: Athens allied with Sparta’s rivals—Argos and Thessaly—and absorbed Megara into its sphere, antagonizing Corinth.
– Military Expansion: Construction of the Long Walls (461 BCE) linked Athens to Piraeus, creating an impregnable corridor. Victories at Tanagra (457 BCE) and Oenophyta solidified Athenian control over Boeotia.
Despite setbacks in Egypt (454 BCE), where an expedition ended catastrophically, Athens continued expanding, defeating Aegina (458 BCE) and launching raids into the Peloponnese.
The Thirty Years’ Peace and Samian Revolt
Exhaustion led to the Thirty Years’ Peace (445 BCE), where Athens relinquished some Peloponnesian holdings but retained its empire. Tensions resurfaced during the Samian Revolt (440 BCE):
– Suppression of Allies: When Samos rebelled against Athenian-imposed democracy, Pericles led a nine-month siege, crushing the revolt and reaffirming Athenian dominance.
– Imperial Methods: Athens employed harsh terms—destroying walls, confiscating fleets, and taking hostages—to deter further uprisings.
Legacy: The Athenian Empire’s Paradox
Athens’ rise demonstrated both the brilliance and brutality of imperial ambition:
– Cultural Flourishing: Imperial revenues funded the Parthenon and Athenian Golden Age, attracting thinkers like Socrates and Sophocles.
– Structural Weaknesses: Heavy-handed rule bred resentment, while overextension in Egypt and Samos drained resources. The Delian League’s evolution into an empire sowed the seeds of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE), which would ultimately unravel Athenian power.
Themistocles’ walls and triremes had secured Athens’ independence, but its imperial overreach—a theme echoing through history—proved its undoing. The 5th century BCE thus stands as both Athens’ zenith and a cautionary tale of power’s fragility.