The Collapse of Ming and the Rise of Southern Ming Resistance
When Beijing fell to rebel forces in 1644 and the Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide, the Ming dynasty’s northern capital was lost. Yet Ming loyalists continued resistance from southern strongholds, establishing a succession of short-lived regimes collectively known as the Southern Ming. Among these, the Yongli regime under the Zhu Youlang (the Yongli Emperor) became the most enduring, continuing the struggle against the expanding Qing empire for over a decade.
The situation grew increasingly desperate after 1645 when the Qing imposed their infamous “haircutting order,” requiring Han Chinese to adopt Manchu hairstyles and dress. This cultural edict provoked widespread rebellion and created unlikely alliances between former enemies – Ming loyalists and peasant rebel forces who had helped overthrow the Ming now joined against their common Qing foe.
The Unlikely Alliance: Ming Loyalists and Rebel Forces
One of the most significant developments was the alliance between the Southern Ming court and remnants of Zhang Xianzhong’s rebel forces. After Zhang’s death in 1646, his former lieutenant Sun Kewang emerged as leader of these rebel remnants. Despite initial tensions over titles and legitimacy, the desperate Yongli Emperor eventually recognized Sun’s authority, granting him the title of Prince of Qin in 1651.
This uneasy alliance gave the Southern Ming access to battle-hardened troops while providing Sun Kewang with political legitimacy. Sun established effective control over much of southwest China from his base in Guizhou, creating a formidable resistance force. His strategic placement of the Yongli court in the remote town of Anlong allowed him to control the emperor while maintaining operational independence.
The 1652 Counteroffensive: Strategy and Deployment
By early 1652, Sun Kewang decided the time was ripe for a major counteroffensive against Qing forces. He coordinated a multi-pronged campaign involving:
– Eastern Front: Led by Li Dingguo against Guangxi and Hunan
– Western Front: Commanded by Liu Wenxiu targeting Sichuan
– Supporting moves by coastal Ming loyalists like Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong)
The plan aimed to exploit Qing overextension while demonstrating Sun’s leadership of the resistance. Sun carefully balanced forces from different factions to maintain control while presenting a united front.
Li Dingguo’s Eastern Campaign: Triumph at Guilin
Li Dingguo’s eastern army achieved stunning success in mid-1652. His forces, which included elite troops from minority groups and even war elephants, employed innovative tactics against the Qing. After victories at Jingzhou and Baoqing, Li besieged Guilin, headquarters of Qing Prince Kong Youde.
The battle for Guilin proved decisive. After initial setbacks, Li’s troops discovered a hidden water tunnel allowing access to the city. On July 4, 1652, Ming forces launched a surprise attack, killing Kong Youde and destroying his army. The victory marked the first time a Qing imperial prince had been killed in combat, sending shockwaves through the Qing court.
Liu Wenxiu’s Western Campaign: Initial Success Turns to Disaster
While Li triumphed in the east, Liu Wenxiu initially succeeded in Sichuan, defeating Qing forces at Xuzhou and trapping the renowned general Wu Sangui at Baoning. However, Liu grew overconfident. Against advice, he attacked Wu’s prepared defenses at Baoning in October 1652.
The battle proved disastrous. Wu Sangui’s counterattack shattered Liu’s army, costing over 10,000 casualties including valuable war elephants. The defeat forced Southern Ming forces to abandon Sichuan, with Liu being stripped of command by an angry Sun Kewang.
The Climax at Hengyang: Killing a Manchu Prince
As Qing forces reeled from these setbacks, the court dispatched Prince Nikan, a seasoned commander and member of the imperial clan, to restore the situation. Li Dingguo prepared an elaborate ambush at Hengyang in November 1652.
Despite Sun Kewang secretly ordering part of the trap withdrawn due to jealousy of Li’s growing fame, the battle still resulted in Nikan’s death – an unprecedented loss for the Qing. However, without full coordination, Li couldn’t exploit the victory, allowing surviving Qing forces to regroup.
Internal Strife Undoes Military Success
The Southern Ming’s battlefield successes masked growing divisions. Sun Kewang grew increasingly suspicious of Li Dingguo’s popularity after his victories. When Sun summoned Li to a meeting in late 1652, Li refused, fearing a trap. This breach marked the beginning of open rivalry between the two most powerful Southern Ming commanders.
In 1653, Sun’s attempt to lead the army himself ended in defeat at Baoqing. With the resistance movement now divided, the great gains of 1652 were gradually lost. By 1654, open conflict erupted between Sun and Li, fatally weakening Southern Ming resistance.
Legacy of the 1652 Counteroffensive
The 1652 campaign represented the high-water mark of Southern Ming resistance:
– Demonstrated Qing forces could be defeated
– Killed two major Qing commanders (Kong Youde and Nikan)
– Temporarily recovered vast territories
– Inspired continued resistance movements
Yet the ultimate failure due to internal divisions became a cautionary tale about the importance of unity against foreign invasion. Historians like Huang Zongxi lamented this missed opportunity, wondering how history might have differed if the Southern Ming leaders had maintained their alliance.
The campaign also highlighted the complex dynamics of resistance – how former rebels became defenders of Chinese tradition against Manchu rule, and how personal ambitions could undermine national causes. These themes would echo through later Chinese history as the country faced new challenges in maintaining unity against external threats.