The Origins of Chu: A Southern Powerhouse Defying the Central Plains
In the complex tapestry of ancient Chinese states, Chu emerged as a distinctive power that proudly maintained its identity separate from the Central Plains kingdoms. From its earliest days, the rulers of Chu embraced their “barbarian” heritage – a label given by northern states but worn as a badge of honor. During the mid-Western Zhou period, Chu ruler Xiong Qu famously declared himself “king of the barbarians,” rejecting the traditional titles used by Central Plains rulers and even proclaiming his three sons as kings, though he later retracted these claims under Zhou pressure.
The Spring and Autumn period (770-476 BCE) saw Chu’s remarkable transformation from a marginal state to a dominant southern power. As Zhou authority waned and northern states fought amongst themselves, Chu seized the opportunity to expand, swallowing smaller states in the Jianghan region (including various Ji-surnamed southern states) to become the preeminent power south of the Yangtze. Over generations, Chu kings expanded their territory dramatically – westward to conquer Yong and Hanzhong, southward to subdue the Baiyue tribes, eastward to defeat powerful Yue and occupy former Wu lands, and northward to annex Lu. At its zenith, Chu boasted 10,000 war chariots, a million soldiers, and territory spanning 5,000 li – making it the largest of all the contending states.
The Complex Dance of Qin-Chu Relations: From Allies to Mortal Enemies
Despite its power, Chu faced constant competition from northern states Qi and Jin. To counterbalance these threats, Chu maintained a strategic marital alliance with Qin – another state considered “barbarian” by Central Plains standards. According to the “Curse Against Chu” inscriptions, this alliance lasted at least eighteen generations, creating deep political interdependence between the two states.
The famous historical episode of “Shen Baoxu Weeping at the Qin Court” illustrates this special relationship. When Wu forces under King Helü invaded Chu in 506 BCE, sacking the capital Ying and desecrating royal tombs, Chu minister Shen Baoxu traveled to Qin for help. After being initially refused, Shen wept at the Qin city walls for seven days and nights without food or water until Duke Ai of Qin was moved to send 500 chariots to Chu’s aid. While traditional accounts emphasize Shen’s devotion, the real motivation was political – Qin couldn’t afford to lose its powerful southern ally.
This alliance would turn to bitter enmity during the Warring States period (475-221 BCE). After the Shang Yang reforms strengthened Qin, it began coveting its former ally’s territory. Under King Huai of Chu, relations reached their nadir – Qin employed spies and diplomatic deception against Chu, even detaining King Huai during negotiations until his death in captivity. These betrayals bred deep resentment among Chu people, including a nobleman named Changping Jun (Lord of Changping) who would become one of history’s most consequential spies.
Changping Jun: The Spy Prince Who Nearly Changed History
Changping Jun’s origins remain debated among historians. Some believe he was a son of King Kaolie of Chu born during his father’s hostage years in Qin, possibly to a Qin princess. Others suggest he was a descendant of King Huai left in Qin. Regardless, most scholars agree he was a Chu noble of the Mi clan (Xiong lineage) who rose to become Qin’s chancellor.
His career took a dramatic turn during the Lü Buwei scandal of 238 BCE. When the powerful chancellor Lü and the Queen Dowager’s lover Lao Ai attempted a coup against young King Zheng (later Qin Shi Huang), Changping Jun helped suppress the rebellion. Though rewarded with the chancellorship, he gradually became alienated as King Zheng consolidated power and marginalized Chu faction officials.
As Qin launched its unification wars, Changping Jun secretly worked against his adopted state. His most brilliant operation involved manipulating Qin into exiling the defeated King An of Han to Chen (former Chu capital Yingcheng), where Changping Jun later surfaced to lead rebellions that disrupted Qin’s invasion of Chu. In 225 BCE, his uprisings behind Qin lines forced general Li Xin to withdraw from Chu, leading to one of Qin’s worst defeats – seven commandants killed and the army routed.
The Fall of Chu and the Seeds of Qin’s Destruction
Though veteran general Wang Jian eventually crushed Chu with 600,000 troops, killing general Xiang Yan and capturing King Fuchu, Changping Jun continued resistance. Proclaiming himself king in Huainan (using a Xiang Yan impersonator for legitimacy), he fought until his death in 223 BCE. His last stand inspired the famous prophecy: “Though Chu has but three clans, it will be Chu that destroys Qin.”
Remarkably, this came true. The first anti-Qin rebellion was led by Chen Sheng from Chu. The final destroyers of Qin – Xiang Yu and Liu Bang – were both Chu leaders. Many rebels had connections to Changping Jun’s network: Zhang Liang from Yingcheng, Xiang Yu’s uncle Xiang Bo whom Zhang saved, and Chen Sheng’s lieutenant Wu Guang from near Yingcheng. Even the “Zhang Chu” regime Chen Sheng established referenced Chu’s legacy.
Legacy: The Spy Who Burned an Empire
Changping Jun’s story represents one of history’s great “what ifs.” His sophisticated spy network and multi-state coordination nearly derailed Qin’s unification. Though he failed to save Chu, his legacy lived on through the rebels who fulfilled his prophecy. The cultural memory of Chu’s resistance, kept alive through his agents, contributed significantly to Qin’s rapid collapse after Shi Huangdi’s death – proving that even the most powerful empires remain vulnerable to the determined resistance of conquered peoples.
Archaeological finds continue to shed light on this pivotal period. From Chu tombs in Hubei to Qin slips at Shuihudi, these artifacts help us reconstruct the world of ancient spies, betrayed alliances, and the complex interplay of states that shaped China’s first unification – and its dramatic unraveling.