A Nation in Crisis: The Waning Years of the Ming Dynasty

The early 17th century found China’s Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) teetering on the brink of collapse. By 1630, the third year of the Chongzhen Emperor’s reign, the empire was buckling under the weight of internal rebellions, economic turmoil, and the relentless pressure of the rising Manchu state—later known as the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912). The Little Ice Age had brought unrelenting cold to northern China, mirroring the dynasty’s waning fortunes.

The previous winter, Huang Taiji, the ambitious leader of the Later Jin (the precursor to the Qing), had led his elite Eight Banners cavalry through the Great Wall, raiding the outskirts of Beijing itself. The Ming court, paralyzed by factionalism and corruption, could do little to stop the incursions. It was against this backdrop of national crisis that Liu Xingzuo, a man caught between two worlds, met his tragic end.

The Rise of “Aita”: From Ming Subject to Manchu General

Born into a prosperous Han Chinese family in Liaodong, Liu Xingzuo (also known by his Manchu name, Aita) was an unlikely candidate for prominence in the Manchu court. In 1605, he found himself in the territory of the Jianzhou Jurchens, the tribal federation led by the charismatic chieftain Nurhaci.

Nurhaci, the founder of the Later Jin state, was a shrewd judge of talent. Recognizing Liu’s intellect and military prowess, he elevated him through the ranks, eventually appointing him as a general overseeing the strategic “Southern Four Garrisons” (Jinzhou, Fuzhou, Gaizhou, and Haizhou). Liu became one of the highest-ranking Han officials in the Manchu administration, surpassed only by the veteran defectors Tong Yangxing and Li Yongfang.

For nearly two decades, Liu served the Later Jin loyally, even participating in campaigns against his own people. Yet beneath the surface, his conscience stirred.

The Turning Point: Ethnic Violence and a Crisis of Conscience

Nurhaci’s policies toward Han Chinese grew increasingly brutal after 1621. Massacres, forced assimilation, and systemic oppression—including the infamous “hair-cutting order” (submit to the Manchu queue or die)—alienated many Han collaborators, including Liu.

The 1621 massacre in Zhenjiang, where thousands of Han civilians were slaughtered after a failed uprising, proved a breaking point. Liu, who had intercepted fleeing refugees only to see them executed, began covertly resisting. He slowed the implementation of harsh decrees and even sheltered Han families—actions that did not go unnoticed.

The Failed Defection: A Missed Opportunity for the Ming

By 1623, Liu sought to defect to the Ming. Through intermediaries, he reached out to Yuan Keli, the Ming’s Deng-Lai regional commander. Yuan, a pragmatic strategist, saw potential in Liu’s insider knowledge and arranged for a safe passage.

However, the plan unraveled when a traitor exposed Liu’s intentions. Though Nurhaci lacked definitive proof, he executed Liu’s brother Liu Xingren as a warning and demoted Liu. The Ming, wary of double agents after previous betrayals, hesitated to fully trust him.

The Great Escape: A Masterclass in Deception

After Nurhaci’s death in 1626, Huang Taiji ascended the throne. Liu, now under looser surveillance, saw an opportunity. In 1628, he staged his own death—burning a body double in his home and leaving a suicide note citing persecution by Manchu rivals. The ruse worked. While Huang Taiji mourned, Liu fled to Pi Island, a Ming stronghold under the controversial warlord Mao Wenlong.

Yet his homecoming was bitter. Mao, suspicious of Liu’s motives, marginalized him. Only Yuan Chonghuan, the Ming’s newly appointed Liaodong commander, recognized Liu’s value, praising his loyalty in memorials to the Chongzhen Emperor.

The Final Betrayal: Death and Legacy

In 1630, during the Later Jin’s invasion near Beijing, Liu was ambushed by Manchu forces. Huang Taiji, still enraged by the deception, had ordered his capture at all costs. Outnumbered and without armor, Liu fought fiercely before falling to arrows. His Manchu friend Kurchan, who wept over his corpse, was later executed for showing sympathy.

The Ming court, ever skeptical, denied Liu posthumous honors. His brothers rebelled in grief, further tarnishing his name.

Conclusion: A Hero Without a Home

Liu Xingzuo’s life encapsulates the agonizing choices of the Ming-Qing transition. A man of principle in an era of shifting allegiances, he ultimately belonged to neither side. His story—of loyalty, betrayal, and redemption—remains a poignant footnote in the collapse of one empire and the birth of another.

Today, historians debate his legacy: Was he a traitor, a patriot, or simply a man trying to survive? Perhaps he was all three—a reflection of the impossible moral calculus of war.