The Origins of a Century-Long Conflict

The roots of the Hundred Years’ War stretch back to the complex feudal relationships between England and France. When Charles IV of France died without a male heir in 1328, Edward III of England, as Charles’ nephew, laid claim to the French throne. However, the French nobility preferred Philip of Valois, who became Philip VI, establishing the Valois dynasty. This succession dispute created tensions that would eventually erupt into open warfare.

The immediate trigger came in 1336 when Philip VI confiscated the Duchy of Aquitaine from Edward III, who held it as a vassal of the French crown. This act violated the traditional feudal contract and gave Edward III both a personal grievance and a legal justification for war. The French move was calculated to weaken English influence on the continent, but it would prove to be the spark that ignited a conflict lasting generations.

The First Campaigns: 1336-1337

In June 1336, the French royal decree confiscating Aquitaine reached Edward III’s seneschal Oliver Ingham. The French moved quickly, assembling an army of 9,000-12,000 men near Marmande under the command of Constable Raoul I of Brienne. This force, including contingents from powerful southern nobles like Jean I of Armagnac and Gaston III of Foix, rapidly captured key positions including Villeneuve in the Agenais region.

The French campaign revealed early strategic problems. While they achieved initial successes in the Dordogne and Gironde regions, their advance stalled by autumn. The French found themselves limited to raiding and occupying minor fortifications, unable to capture well-defended strongholds near river networks that could be easily reinforced. Compounding these difficulties, Philip VI disbanded much of his southern army in July, needing troops to counter Edward III’s growing anti-French coalition in the north.

Edward III’s grand strategy faced its own challenges. His planned Normandy invasion and coordinated attack with German allies failed to materialize. Despite promises of 160,000 pounds in military funding, his allies proved reluctant to challenge France directly. By October 1337, Edward could only muster 1,300 troops for preliminary raids along the Flemish coast – a far cry from the promised 7,000-strong German army that never appeared.

Naval Warfare and Economic Struggles

The war’s maritime dimension emerged dramatically in 1338 when new French naval commander Nicholas Béhuchet launched surprise attacks on English ports beginning with Portsmouth in March. French raids along the English coast caused significant damage to trade and fishing industries, creating widespread hardship. These naval operations marked the beginning of a pattern that would continue throughout the war – the vulnerability of England’s coastal communities to French attacks.

Edward III faced severe financial difficulties funding his continental campaigns. His solution – compulsory low-price purchases of English wool for resale abroad – proved unpopular and economically disruptive. The wool export ban particularly hurt Flemish cities dependent on English wool, leading to urban revolts in Ghent, Bruges, and Ypres by January 1338. These revolts brought Jacob van Artevelde to power in Ghent, creating a valuable Flemish ally for England against their pro-French count Louis I.

The Failed Northern Campaign of 1339

After nearly two years of delays, Edward III finally arrived in Antwerp in July 1338 with about 4,000 troops. This prompted French counter-movements, but Edward’s campaign stalled again due to financial problems. His German allies refused to move without payment, forcing postponement until 1339.

When the allied offensive finally came in September 1339, it proved ineffective. A 10,000-strong coalition army besieged Cambrai but failed to either take the city or draw the French into decisive battle. After an inconclusive march into French territory, the allies withdrew, pursued cautiously by Philip VI’s 25,000-strong army. The Germans soon abandoned the campaign, leaving Edward with nothing but debt and destroyed villages to show for his efforts.

The Royal Gambit: Edward Claims the French Throne

Frustrated by military setbacks, Edward III made a dramatic political move on January 26, 1340, declaring himself the rightful King of France at the Ghent marketplace. This symbolic act served multiple purposes: it severed Edward’s feudal ties to Philip VI, provided legal cover for French nobles supporting him, and reframed the conflict as a dynastic dispute rather than rebellion.

The declaration caused unease in England, where many opposed deeper involvement in continental affairs. Parliament passed legislation ensuring no Englishman would ever be subject to French law, reflecting growing anti-French sentiment. Edward’s financial troubles worsened, forcing him to return to England in February while leaving his family as hostages in Flanders.

The Decisive Naval Victory at Sluys

Edward’s fortunes changed dramatically in June 1340 at the Battle of Sluys. Despite warnings from advisors, Edward personally led about 160 English ships against a larger French fleet of 213 vessels blocking the Zwin estuary. The French, under Hugues Quiéret and Nicholas Béhuchet, had chained their ships together in three defensive lines – a disastrous tactic that prevented maneuverability.

On June 24, English longbowmen gained the advantage of wind and sun position, raining arrows on the immobilized French fleet. English boarding parties then overwhelmed the French, with Flemish allies joining the attack. By nightfall, the battle had become a massacre. The English captured or destroyed 190 French ships, killing about 16,000 men including both French commanders. This crushing victory gave England naval supremacy for decades.

Aftermath and Stalemate

Despite the triumph at Sluys, Edward’s subsequent land campaigns faltered. His siege of Tournai failed, and his Flemish allies suffered a devastating defeat at Saint-Omer on July 26. With his coalition crumbling and finances exhausted, Edward was forced to sign the nine-month Truce of Esplechin on September 24, 1340. This marked the failure of his northern strategy after expenditures exceeding 400,000 pounds.

Legacy of the Early War Years

These opening campaigns established patterns that would characterize the entire Hundred Years’ War. They revealed:
– The difficulty of maintaining multi-front warfare for both kingdoms
– The importance of naval power and coastal defense
– The crucial role of economics in sustaining prolonged conflict
– The limitations of medieval coalition warfare
– The growing importance of national identity in what began as a dynastic dispute

The early failures of both sides’ grand strategies demonstrated that this would be no quick war of decisive battles, but rather a prolonged struggle of attrition, diplomacy, and economic endurance – the opening act of a conflict that would reshape Western European politics for generations to come.