A Fragile Truce: The Treaty of Brétigny and Its Immediate Aftermath

The Treaty of Brétigny (1360) marked a temporary pause in the Hundred Years’ War between England and France, granting King Edward III of England vast territories and a hefty ransom for the release of King John II of France. However, the treaty failed to deliver the peace France desperately needed. English garrisons stationed in northern regions like the Île-de-France and Picardy, having grown accustomed to plundering, refused to withdraw despite royal orders. The French government was forced to pay additional sums to expel them—a humiliating concession that exposed the crown’s weakness.

Far more dangerous were the Grandes Compagnies—bands of mercenaries and disbanded soldiers—who turned the Auvergne mountains into a base for raids across central and southern France. By late 1360, these marauders coalesced into armies thousands strong, descending upon Lyon and the Rhône Valley. Their advance toward Avignon, the seat of the Pope, triggered panic. A combination of bribes and diplomacy diverted some companies to Italy, where wealthy city-states offered richer spoils. Others were meant to be sent to Spain, but the resolution of local conflicts in 1361 left Languedoc at the mercy of these lawless bands.

The Collapse of Royal Authority

King John II’s government struggled to maintain control. In the southwest, officials handed over territories to English commanders like Sir John Chandos, sparking local outrage. A rare victory came in 1361 when the sudden death of 15-year-old Philip I, the last Capetian Duke of Burgundy, allowed John to annex the duchy. Yet even this gain was overshadowed by the arrival of mercenary companies.

Determined to crush the threat, John’s forces clashed with the Grandes Compagnies at Brignais on April 6, 1362. The result was a disastrous defeat: 4,000 royal troops were routed, and key nobles, including the Count of La Marche, perished. The battle exposed France’s inability to quell internal chaos without further draining its treasury.

Financial Reforms and the Birth of National Taxation

The 1360s forced France into fiscal innovation. To fund his ransom, John II imposed indirect taxes (aides) and revived the salt tax (gabelle). In 1363, the Estates-General introduced the fouage, a direct hearth tax meant to finance a standing army. However, resistance was fierce. Languedoc negotiated fixed payments, while local communities set their own rates. Tax collection remained haphazard amid mercenary raids, plague, and noble infighting. By 1361, France defaulted on its ransom payments—a stark sign of systemic failure.

The Return to War: England’s Broken Promises

The Treaty of Brétigny’s flaws became undeniable. Edward III delayed renouncing his claim to the French throne, while English garrisons refused to evacuate. Matters worsened when John II’s son, Louis I of Anjou, escaped captivity in 1363, violating the treaty. In a final humiliation, John II returned to England in 1364 to renegotiate—only to die months later. Edward III mourned his rival, but the loss of a pliable adversary weakened England’s position.

The Castilian Gambit and the Rise of Bertrand du Guesclin

France’s fortunes began to shift under Charles V, who exploited divisions in Castile. When Pedro the Cruel faced rebellion, Charles backed his rival, Henry of Trastámara. The brilliant Breton commander Bertrand du Guesclin led French and mercenary forces into Spain in 1366, routing Pedro and crowning Henry as King Henry II.

England retaliated. The Black Prince, Edward of Woodstock, allied with Pedro and crushed Henry at Nájera (1367). Yet victory proved hollow: Pedro reneged on payments, leaving the Black Prince bankrupt. Meanwhile, Du Guesclin regrouped, and in 1369, Henry killed Pedro at Montiel, securing his throne with French support.

The War Resumes: France’s Strategic Revival

Charles V, learning from past defeats, adopted a strategy of attrition. Avoiding pitched battles, French forces harassed English supply lines and reclaimed towns methodically. The death of John Chandos in 1370 deprived England of a key commander, while Du Guesclin’s appointment as Constable of France in October 1370 signaled a new era.

At Pontvallain (December 1370), Du Guesclin annihilated an English raiding party, shattering their aura of invincibility. By 1371, even Brittany’s pro-English duke wavered, and Navarre’s Charles II submitted to France.

Legacy: The Seeds of French Resurgence

The post-Brétigny era revealed the fragility of medieval treaties and the brutality of mercenary warfare. France’s fiscal reforms laid groundwork for centralized taxation, while Charles V’s cautious strategy set the stage for later victories. For England, the cost of fleeting triumphs—like Nájera—proved unsustainable.

The Grandes Compagnies, though eventually dispersed, left scars. Their raids accelerated fortification-building and local militias, reshaping French society. Du Guesclin emerged as a national hero, embodying resilience against foreign and internal threats.

By 1374, the Hundred Years’ War had entered a new phase—one where France, once teetering, began its long reconquest. The Treaty of Brétigny’s failure became a lesson: peace without enforcement was merely a prelude to greater conflict.