It’s hard to believe that salt—a simple seasoning found on every dining table—once served as the economic backbone of an empire for over 2,000 years. But history is full of surprises. In ancient times, when technology was primitive, salt was far more than a kitchen staple—it was power, wealth, and survival.
From the Bible calling the righteous “the salt of the earth” to the Roman word salary (which originally referred to soldiers’ salt allowances), salt has played a critical role in civilization. In China, it was even more influential, holding a strategic position that no other commodity could replace.
How Long Have Humans Been Eating Salt?
Salt is essential to life, but when did humans start using it? Unfortunately, history and archaeology have yet to provide a definitive answer. However, much like the discovery of fire, the use of salt must have been a long and gradual process.
China boasts one of the earliest salt cultures, dating back over 4,000 years. Ancient Chinese called it “鹽” (yán)—literally meaning “boiling brine in a vessel.” Before that, our distant ancestors lived in a world devoid of salt, eating raw meat and drinking blood. Early rituals even avoided adding salt to meat, a practice known as “大羹不致”, to honor tradition.
Legend credits the discovery of salt to Su Sha, a subordinate of the Yellow Emperor. This ancient ruler supposedly found a way to extract salt by boiling seawater, producing coarse salt in five colors—green, yellow, white, black, and purple. This breakthrough was a game-changer for early societies, earning Su Sha the title of “Salt Ancestor.” Even today, some regions still honor him in temples.
By the Xia Dynasty (2070–1600 BCE), salt was already valuable enough to be used as tribute to rulers. By the Shang Dynasty, it had become a key ingredient in cooking, often paired with sour flavors like pickled plums, as noted in The Book of Documents. By the Zhou Dynasty, salt was officially recognized as one of the five fundamental tastes (sour, bitter, spicy, salty, and sweet) and even used for medicinal purposes.
Salt and Power: Who Controlled the Salt, Controlled the Empire
If oil is modern-day liquid gold, then salt was the “white gold” of the ancient world. Unlike crops, salt couldn’t be easily grown—it had to be mined, extracted, or evaporated. Since production was geographically limited, controlling salt meant controlling wealth and power. Governments quickly realized this and took steps to monopolize it.
As early as the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, rulers established official salt regulations. But due to inefficient production methods, salt remained expensive, a luxury for the upper class. During the Zhou Dynasty, the government even created a “Salt Bureau”, appointing officials called “Salt Men” to oversee production. Different types of salt were reserved for different purposes: bitter salt for sacrifices, shaped salt for guests, and sweetened salt for the emperor.
By the Spring and Autumn Period (770–476 BCE), salt sources diversified. The east relied on sea salt, the west on rock salt, and the south on earth salt. Qi State was the first to implement an official salt monopoly, using the profits to build armies and fortifications, which helped Duke Huan of Qi become the first hegemon of the era. Other states followed suit, including Wei State, which became the richest of the Warring States thanks to the Hedong Salt Lake—a prize so valuable that Qin later made it a military target.
The Rise of the Salt Monopoly: A 2,000-Year Cash Cow
By the Han Dynasty, the government realized salt could be a major revenue stream. Facing financial strain from constant warfare, Emperor Wu of Han established an official salt and iron monopoly. Private salt producers had to sell their salt to the state, which controlled distribution and imposed heavy taxes. Violating these laws could lead to severe punishments—such as losing a toe.
However, the system was highly inefficient. Government salt was overpriced and poor in quality, leading people to turn to the black market. During the Three Kingdoms and Jin Dynasty, salt prices sometimes exceeded grain prices, fueling widespread discontent. Over time, rulers loosened and tightened controls, depending on economic needs.
By the Tang Dynasty, after the devastating An Lushan Rebellion, the empire was desperate for money. The government reinstituted strict salt monopolies, making salt taxes the backbone of military funding. This led to sky-high prices and the rise of powerful salt merchants, who exploited the system for profit. The Song Dynasty continued this trend, using salt taxes to fund national defense—including payments to the Liao Dynasty under the Shanyuan Treaty.
The pattern repeated under the Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties, with salt taxes consistently making up a massive portion of government revenue. At its peak, 80% of the Yuan Dynasty’s central revenue came from salt taxes.
The Billionaires of Ancient China: Salt Merchants
Forget silk traders or bankers—the richest people in ancient China were salt merchants. Due to its government-backed monopoly, selling salt was the most lucrative business imaginable. Among these, the Yangzhou salt merchants were the wealthiest, wielding influence akin to modern billionaires.
During the Qing Dynasty, these merchants held exclusive licenses to transport and sell salt, accumulating vast fortunes. To maintain their dominance, they developed close ties with officials, essentially forming a government-business alliance.
One famous example? When Emperor Qianlong toured southern China, Yangzhou’s salt merchants sponsored his visit, spending astronomical sums to impress him. They built grand theaters, staged performances, and even restored the scenic Slender West Lake just for his enjoyment. This extravagant display even prompted Qianlong to exclaim, “The wealth of the salt merchants is truly incredible!”
But their wealth didn’t come just from state-sanctioned sales. They also secretly trafficked illegal salt, mixing it with government salt to maximize profits. Additionally, they diluted high-grade salt with impurities while jacking up prices, ensuring that private salt (which they also controlled) remained in high demand.
Eventually, their lavish lifestyles made them an easy target for exploitation. The Qing government frequently forced them to “donate” money to cover imperial expenses. In the 19th century, rising costs, political instability, and the collapse of the salt license system led to their downfall. The Taiping Rebellion dealt the final blow, plundering their wealth. By the time the Qing Dynasty fell, salt merchants had faded into history.
Conclusion: The Legacy of Salt in Chinese History
For over two millennia, salt was more than just a seasoning—it was the lifeblood of economies, the foundation of empires, and the key to power. From early salt lords to powerful merchants and oppressive government monopolies, salt shaped China’s political and economic landscape.
Today, salt is cheap and abundant, something we rarely think about. But next time you reach for the salt shaker, remember—you’re holding a piece of history that once built dynasties and bankrupted nations.
Who knew something so small could wield so much power?