A Kingdom Divided: The Fragmented State of France

The early 1420s marked one of the darkest periods in French medieval history. Following the disastrous Treaty of Troyes (1420) and the untimely death of Charles VI, the French crown was claimed by both the infant Henry VI of England and the disinherited Dauphin, Charles VII. By 1423, France had effectively fractured into three spheres: English-controlled Normandy and Paris, Burgundian-dominated territories in the northeast, and the shrinking “Kingdom of Bourges” loyal to Charles VII in the Loire Valley.

This geopolitical fragmentation created a military landscape where fortified towns became existential strongpoints. The Anglo-Burgundian alliance, flush with victories at Verneuil and Cravant, sought to systematically eliminate Charles VII’s remaining bastions. Meanwhile, the Dauphin’s faction relied on a patchwork of Scottish mercenaries, Lombard cavalry, and regional loyalists to maintain a tenuous hold south of the Loire River.

The Siege Mentality: Key Battles of 1423

The campaign season of 1423 opened with a series of brutal sieges that would test both sides’ endurance:

### The Fall of Le Crotoy

In northern Picardy, the coastal fortress of Le Crotoy had become a symbol of French resistance under Jacques d’Harcourt. After three years of defiant occupation, the tide turned when English naval superiority cut off supply routes. The final blow came in September 1423 when d’Harcourt’s own brother, Bishop Jean of Amiens, persuaded him that relief from Charles VII was impossible. The October 5 surrender agreement allowed a face-saving delay until March 1424, but the psychological impact was immediate—the last French stronghold north of the Somme had fallen.

### The Burgundian Onslaught

John of Luxembourg, the Burgundian strategist, launched simultaneous assaults across Champagne:
– The capture of Montaiguillon after a six-month siege (March 1424)
– The brutal storming of Sézanne (June 24), where 200 French defenders perished
– The surrender of Moymer Castle (July), completing Burgundian control of Champagne

These victories created a domino effect. As chronicler Enguerrand de Monstrelet noted: “When one fortress fell, three others would lose heart.” The Burgundian advance reached its zenith when they crossed the Allier River, threatening Bourges itself.

The Human Dimension: Births, Betrayals, and Court Intrigue

Amidst the military campaigns, personal dramas shaped the conflict:

### A Royal Birth

On July 3, 1423, Queen Marie of Anjou delivered a son—the future Louis XI—in Bourges. This birth secured the Valois dynasty’s continuity, as recorded in the Berry Herald: “The bonfires burned so bright that night, one might think the whole kingdom rejoiced.”

### The Poisoned Court

Charles VII’s administration was paralyzed by factionalism:
– Pierre Frotier, the upstart stablemaster, monopolized military appointments
– Jean Louvet, the corrupt treasurer, profited from debased coinage
– Tanneguy du Chastel’s financial mismanagement eroded army morale

Yolande of Aragon, Charles’ mother-in-law, recognized these weaknesses. Her secret correspondence with Breton nobles (culminating in the 1424 Nantes Agreement) demonstrated how dynastic politics often overshadowed battlefield results.

Military Innovations and Tactical Shifts

The campaigns of 1423-1424 revealed evolving warfare:

### The Scottish Gambit

Charles VII’s recruitment of 6,500 Scottish troops under Archibald Douglas marked a strategic gamble. Their April 1424 arrival temporarily balanced Burgundian numerical superiority, but integration problems persisted. The Scots’ insistence on pitched battles would later prove disastrous at Verneuil.

### Burgundian Combined Arms

John of Luxembourg perfected a siege methodology combining:
1. Economic warfare (blockading supply routes)
2. Psychological pressure (displaying captured commanders)
3. Technical superiority (systematic sapping and artillery)

This approach reduced Montaiguillon and other fortresses without costly assaults.

The Road to Verneuil

By August 1424, both sides maneuvered for a decisive encounter. The English capture of Ivry (August 14) set the stage for the pivotal Battle of Verneuil (August 17), where:
– French overconfidence in their Scottish troops proved fatal
– English longbowmen again demonstrated tactical supremacy
– The death of Douglas and 4,000 Scots crippled Charles VII’s offensive capacity

Contemporary chronicler Jean de Wavrin described the aftermath: “The field was so thick with dead that one could walk across it without touching ground.”

Legacy: The Protracted Path to Recovery

The 1423-1424 campaigns established critical patterns:
1. Territorial Stalemate: Despite victories, the Anglo-Burgundians lacked manpower to hold conquered lands permanently
2. Financial Exhaustion: Both sides resorted to oppressive taxation, as seen in Normandy’s 200,000 livre levy (December 1423)
3. Dynastic Realignment: Yolande of Aragon’s diplomatic efforts with Brittany foreshadowed the 1429 realignment that would enable Joan of Arc’s campaigns

As historian Malcolm Vale observed, these years represented “not the death throes of the Valois cause, but the painful gestation of a new French military identity.” The failures of 1424 would ultimately force Charles VII to develop the standing army system that later expelled the English from France.

The human cost was staggering—entire regions like Champagne became depopulated wastelands. Yet within this devastation emerged the administrative innovations and national consciousness that would define late medieval France. The Anglo-Burgundian alliance’s failure to deliver a knockout blow in 1424 ensured the Hundred Years’ War would continue for three more decades, its outcome still uncertain.