The Fragile Balance of Power

The early 1430s marked a critical juncture in the Hundred Years’ War, as the English, French, and Burgundian factions jockeyed for dominance in northern France. Following the death of Henry V in 1422, his infant son Henry VI inherited a dual monarchy over England and France under the Treaty of Troyes. However, maintaining control over French territories proved increasingly difficult for the English regency led by John, Duke of Bedford.

Meanwhile, the French under Charles VII gradually regained momentum, buoyed by the efforts of figures like Joan of Arc and a shifting web of noble alliances. The Burgundians, led by Philip the Good, remained a volatile third force, oscillating between supporting the English and pursuing their own territorial ambitions. This period saw a complex interplay of military campaigns, political intrigue, and shifting loyalties that would shape the final phase of the war.

The English Regency in Crisis

### Bedford’s Struggles

John, Duke of Bedford, faced mounting challenges as regent of English-occupied France. His authority was undermined by factional disputes within the English government, particularly between his brother Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, and Cardinal Henry Beaufort. These divisions weakened England’s ability to sustain its military efforts across the Channel.

In 1432, Bedford’s position grew increasingly precarious. The Great Council, which had temporarily assumed regency powers, implemented controversial policies that disrupted military administration. Soldiers’ pay was mismanaged, leading to widespread desertions, while Beaufort’s favoritism in appointing loyalists to key positions alienated both English and French supporters.

### The Fall of Beaufort

Beaufort’s overreach eventually backfired. Upon returning to England, he faced accusations of misconduct from Gloucester, who seized his assets and accused him of treason. Though Beaufort escaped severe punishment, his political influence waned, and he withdrew from court to attend the Council of Basel. This infighting left Bedford without crucial support just as French resistance intensified.

French Resurgence and Noble Rivalries

### The Breton-Anjou Alliance

While the English grappled with internal strife, the French nobility began consolidating their forces. John V, Duke of Brittany, though nominally allied with England, increasingly hedged his bets. In 1431, he reconciled with the Anjou family through a marriage alliance between his heir Francis and Yolande of Anjou, daughter of the influential Yolande of Aragon.

This realignment strengthened Charles VII’s position, but old rivalries persisted. The Duke of Alençon, Jean II, embroiled in a bitter feud with his uncle John V over unpaid dowries, resorted to kidnapping Breton officials. This petty conflict nearly escalated into open war until Arthur de Richemont, Constable of France and John V’s brother, mediated a tense truce.

### The Burgundian Dilemma

Philip the Good of Burgundy faced his own challenges. His territories stretched from the Low Countries to Burgundy proper, making his allegiance crucial for both England and France. However, his reluctance to fully commit to either side left his borders vulnerable. French forces under Rodrigue de Villandrando raided Burgundian lands, while English promises of support often fell short.

Philip’s frustration grew as his southern domains came under increasing pressure. By 1434, he launched a punitive campaign into Champagne, temporarily reversing French gains but straining his resources. The constant warfare and shifting alliances left many of his vassals disillusioned.

Military Campaigns and Shifting Fortunes

### The Siege of Lagny

One of the war’s pivotal moments came in 1432 with the failed English siege of Lagny, a key French stronghold on the Marne River. Bedford assembled a formidable force, including Burgundian allies, but the siege dragged on for months. French defenders, bolstered by reinforcements under Richemont and La Hire, held firm despite heavy bombardment.

The turning point came in August when French relief forces outmaneuvered the English, breaking the siege. Bedford’s retreat marked the end of England’s last major offensive in northern France. The defeat demoralized English forces and emboldened French partisans across the region.

### The Norman Revolt

English rule in Normandy grew increasingly unstable. Heavy taxation, military repression, and the massacre of Norman militiamen by English troops at Saint-Pierre-sur-Dives in 1434 sparked widespread rebellion. Peasant uprisings erupted around Caen and Bayeux, briefly threatening English control before being brutally suppressed.

These revolts exposed the fragility of English administration. Even loyal Norman towns began questioning continued allegiance to Henry VI as French forces under the Duke of Alençon made steady gains in the countryside.

The Road to Arras

### Diplomatic Maneuvering

By 1435, all parties recognized the need for negotiation. The Congress of Arras, scheduled for July, offered hope for a lasting peace. French diplomats worked tirelessly to secure Burgundy’s defection, offering generous territorial concessions and a formal apology for the murder of Philip’s father, John the Fearless.

England, increasingly isolated, struggled to maintain its alliance with Burgundy. Bedford’s death in September 1435, shortly after the congress began, removed one of the last obstacles to reconciliation between Burgundy and France.

### The Treaty of Arras

The treaty, signed in September 1435, marked a decisive turning point. Philip the Good abandoned the English alliance, recognizing Charles VII as rightful king of France in exchange for substantial territorial gains and exemption from homage. This left England without its most powerful continental ally, accelerating the collapse of its French territories.

Legacy and Modern Relevance

The struggles north of the Loire in the 1430s demonstrated the importance of political cohesion and adaptive military strategy. England’s failure to maintain noble unity or address local grievances in occupied territories undermined its once-formidable position. Conversely, Charles VII’s ability to reconcile with Burgundy and mobilize French regional forces laid the foundation for eventual victory.

Modern historians view this period as a case study in the limits of medieval occupation and the resilience of national identity. The events also foreshadowed later European conflicts where shifting alliances and internal divisions determined outcomes as much as battlefield tactics.

Ultimately, the decade’s turmoil set the stage for France’s reconquest and England’s gradual withdrawal from continental ambitions—a process that would redefine both nations in the centuries to come.