The Long Shadow of English Gascony

For over three centuries, the Duchy of Aquitaine had been a persistent thorn in Franco-English relations. Originally part of Eleanor of Aquitaine’s dowry when she married Henry II of England in 1152, this southwestern region of France became the last remaining English continental possession after the dramatic French reconquests of the 1440s. By 1451, only Bordeaux and its surrounding territories in Gascony remained under English control – a tenuous foothold maintained more through local Gascon preference for English rule than through military strength.

The Gascon nobility had developed a complex relationship with their English overlords. While technically vassals of the English king in his capacity as Duke of Aquitaine, the Gascons prized their traditional liberties and autonomy. English rule, light-handed and commercially beneficial, was generally preferred to direct French administration. The wine trade with England formed the backbone of Bordeaux’s prosperity, creating powerful economic incentives to maintain the status quo.

The Spark of Rebellion

French taxation policies proved the catalyst for rebellion. When Charles VII’s officials attempted to impose permanent taxes on Bordeaux in 1452 – breaking with the English tradition of temporary, negotiated subsidies – the merchant oligarchy that controlled the city saw both their privileges and profits threatened. Olivier de Coëtivy, the French seneschal, found his tax collectors facing organized resistance.

The situation reached a crisis point in July 1452 when a Bordelais delegation returned empty-handed from pleading their case before Charles VII. The king’s refusal to exempt them from taxation, combined with his insistence on maintaining French garrisons, alienated even those Gascons who had initially welcomed French rule. Secret communications with England began in earnest, with prominent nobles like Jean de Foix-Candale traveling to London to request military intervention.

Talbot’s Gamble

The English government, led by the weak Henry VI but effectively controlled by the Lancastrian faction, saw an opportunity to regain lost prestige. They turned to their most experienced (if aging) commander: John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury. At nearly seventy, Talbot was a living legend – the terror of the French during the 1420s and 1430s, though his reputation had suffered after defeats at Patay (1429) and Formigny (1450).

Talbot’s expeditionary force of 3,000 men landed near Soulac on October 17, 1452, meeting little initial resistance. The campaign’s early success was stunning – within weeks, key towns like Libourne and Castillon opened their gates, while Bordeaux itself rose up against its French garrison. By Christmas, only a handful of fortresses like Fronsac remained in French hands.

The French Counterattack

Charles VII’s response was characteristically methodical. Having learned from his Normandy campaign of 1449-50, the French king prepared a comprehensive strategy rather than rushing headlong into battle. Over the winter of 1452-53, he:

– Recalled experienced commanders from Normandy including Jean Bureau, master of artillery
– Organized three separate armies to converge on Gascony
– Secured his eastern flank through diplomacy with Savoy
– Raised extraordinary taxes to fund the campaign

The French tactical approach reflected lessons learned from earlier engagements: combining traditional heavy cavalry with disciplined infantry and, crucially, the effective use of gunpowder artillery in both siege and field operations.

The Battle of Castillon (July 17, 1453)

The decisive encounter came at Castillon, where Talbot attempted to relieve a besieged English garrison. Bureau had prepared a fortified artillery park – one of the first examples of field fortifications designed specifically for gunpowder weapons. When Talbot’s forces attacked on July 17, they faced:

– 300 artillery pieces of various sizes
– 700 handgunners positioned behind earthworks
– Multiple trench lines and palisades

The result was a massacre. Talbot himself died in the fighting, along with his son and much of the English elite in Gascony. French casualties were light, demonstrating the effectiveness of their new combined-arms approach.

The Fall of Bordeaux

With their field army destroyed, English resistance collapsed. Charles VII methodically reduced remaining strongholds before laying siege to Bordeaux itself in August 1453. The city held out for two months, but with:

– No hope of English relief (Henry VI had suffered a mental breakdown upon hearing of Castillon)
– Plague breaking out within the walls
– The Gascon merchant class seeking to protect their commercial interests

Bordeaux finally surrendered on October 19, 1453. Charles showed remarkable clemency, allowing the English garrison to depart peacefully and pardoning most of the rebellious Gascons.

The War’s Unexpected Legacy

Though no formal peace treaty was signed, 1453 marked the effective end of the Hundred Years’ War. The consequences were profound for both nations:

For England:
– Loss of continental territories (except Calais) ended centuries of cross-Channel empire
– Financial strain and military failure contributed to the Wars of the Roses
– Forced reorientation toward maritime and commercial expansion

For France:
– Completion of territorial unification under the crown
– Establishment of a standing army and more centralized taxation
– Enhanced royal prestige that would underpin the early modern French state

Interestingly, English kings continued to style themselves as rulers of France until 1802, a lingering symbolic claim to a lost inheritance. The war’s end also marked a watershed in military history, with gunpowder weapons proving decisive at Castillon – a harbinger of warfare’s future.

Conclusion

The 1453 campaign represented more than just the final act of a long war. It marked the passing of an entire political order – the feudal dream of cross-channel empire that had motivated English kings since the Norman Conquest. For France, it signaled the birth of a more unified, centralized state. The fall of English Gascony thus stands as one of those rare military campaigns that genuinely altered the course of European history.