The Collapse of the Yuan and the Birth of the Northern Yuan

The fall of Dadu (modern-day Beijing) in 1368 marked the official end of the Yuan Dynasty, yet, as noted by the Ming-Qing historian Gu Yingtai, “the Yuan perished, yet did not truly perish.” Emperor Toghon Temür (Yuan Shundi) retained nominal control over vast territories, including Manchuria, Mongolia, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Gansu, and Yunnan. The Yuan military, still formidable with a reported “million archers,” maintained a defensive line stretching thousands of miles from Liaodong to Gansu. With ample supplies of weaponry and livestock, the Yuan appeared capable of continuing the war.

Fleeing Dadu on July 28, 1368, the emperor sought refuge in Shangdu (Xanadu), the Yuan summer capital in modern-day Inner Mongolia. This retreat was not a surrender but a strategic withdrawal—a temporary base from which to regroup and counterattack.

Shangdu: The Last Stronghold of the Yuan

Shangdu, though smaller and less populous than Dadu, was a multicultural hub with palaces, government offices, and a mix of Han Chinese, Mongols, and Central Asian communities. However, its location in the steppe made it agriculturally unsustainable, relying on supplies transported from the south. Archaeological evidence reveals its square earthen walls lacked defensive features like corner towers, making it vulnerable—a flaw that contributed to its eventual downfall.

Despite its political significance, Shangdu remained obscure globally until European travelers like Marco Polo and later the Romantic poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge (with his poem Kubla Khan) romanticized its splendor. By then, however, Shangdu lay in ruins, destroyed during the Yuan’s collapse.

The Northern Yuan’s Struggle for Survival

The rump state, known as the Northern Yuan, clung to power from Shangdu. Its leaders, refusing to accept their diminished status, plotted counterattacks against the Ming. Yet their resources were stretched thin. The once-prosperous “wealth beyond the Wall” had depended on southern supplies now severed. Regional warlords like Wang Baobao (Köke Temür) in Shanxi and Li Siqi in Shaanxi operated semi-independently, further weakening central authority.

The Northern Yuan’s military, though numerically impressive, was a patchwork of aging troops, regional forces, and the emperor’s remaining guards. Wang Baobao’s army, the most formidable, became the Ming’s primary target.

The Decisive Battle of Taiyuan

In 1368, Ming generals Xu Da and Chang Yuchun launched a campaign to crush Wang Baobao in Shanxi. Despite initial setbacks at Zhandian, Ming forces exploited Wang’s overextension. When Wang diverted troops to attack Beiping (Beijing), Xu Da executed a brilliant maneuver—ignoring the threat and striking Taiyuan, Wang’s base.

The gamble paid off. Forced to retreat, Wang’s exhausted cavalry was ambushed at night by Ming forces, aided by defectors. The Yuan army collapsed; Wang fled with just 18 men. The Ming captured 40,000 soldiers and horses, securing Shanxi.

Legacy: The Northern Yuan’s Long Shadow

Though the Ming neutralized Wang Baobao, the Northern Yuan persisted for decades, evolving into a Mongol confederacy that harassed China’s borders. This conflict set the stage for Ming-Mongol tensions lasting centuries, influencing the Great Wall’s expansion and frontier policies.

The fall of the Yuan thus was not a clean break but a protracted decline—a testament to the resilience of steppe empires and the challenges of unifying a fractured realm. The Ming’s victory at Taiyuan, though decisive, was merely the first chapter in a longer struggle between settled and nomadic power.