The Rise of the Northern Yuan and Its Early Challenges

Following their successful defense against Ming forces in the northern campaigns of 1372, the Northern Yuan regime began organizing counterattacks against the Ming Dynasty. This marked a crucial phase in the prolonged conflict between the remnants of the Mongol Yuan dynasty and the newly established Ming empire. The Northern Yuan, though weakened, still possessed significant military capabilities and maintained diplomatic connections across Northeast Asia.

The most aggressive Northern Yuan commander, Wang Baobao (Köke Temür), moved swiftly to pursue retreating Ming troops southward. By August 1372, his forces had reached Shanxi province, attacking locations including Datong, Xuanning County’s Xiashui Town, and Yunnei (southeast of present-day Tumd Left Banner in Inner Mongolia). These raids resulted in the deaths of local officials and the capture of numerous civilians, spreading conflict across multiple provinces.

The Northern Yuan’s Multi-Front Offensive

From late 1372 through 1373, the Northern Yuan launched attacks across an extensive front stretching from Liaodong in the east to Lanzhou in the west. One particularly devastating raid occurred in November 1372 when Nakhachu’s forces invaded Niujiazhuang in Liaodong (near modern Haicheng), burning over 100,000 dan of grain stores and annihilating more than 5,000 Ming troops.

The following year saw widespread attacks across:
– Liaoning (Ruizhou near modern Suizhong)
– Hebei (Yongping’s Qian’an County, Funing, Yuzhou, Hongzhou, Huairou)
– Shanxi (Wuzhou near Shenchi, Shuozhou, Kelan, Yanmen, Xinzhou)
– Shaanxi (Bao’an near Zhidan)
– Gansu (Qingyang, Huining, Hezhou, Lanzhou)

However, these Northern Yuan operations lacked unified coordination, being mostly small-scale and sporadic. The Mongol forces only demonstrated strong unity when facing significant Ming military pressure; without such threats, their traditional factionalism reemerged.

Diplomatic Maneuvers and Alliances

During this period, Emperor Ayushiridara of the Northern Yuan actively sought alliances with pro-Yuan elements in Yunnan and Goryeo (Korea), attempting to create strategic pressure on the Ming from both northern and southern directions.

In 1373, a Northern Yuan envoy named Tuotuo traveled through Tibetan regions (“Xifan”) to Yunnan to requisition grain. Discovering Ming envoys conducting secret recruitment activities there, Tuotuo pressured the wavering Prince of Liang to execute the Ming diplomats to prove his loyalty. This forced the Ming to temporarily abandon their pacification policy in Yunnan and alerted the Hongwu Emperor to the coordination between Ayushiridara and the Prince of Liang.

The Northern Yuan achieved diplomatic progress with Goryeo when Ayushiridara sent envoys to King Gongmin, claiming that with Wang Baobao as chancellor, they were nearing “restoration.” Wang Baobao similarly urged the Goryeo king to prepare forces and form a pincer movement with the Northern Yuan. Although Goryeo had initially recognized Ming authority after the Yuan’s fall, their attitude shifted subtly, culminating in 1377 when they ceased using the Ming’s Hongwu era name and adopted the Northern Yuan’s Xuanguang era name instead.

Ming Defensive Strategies and Border Consolidation

Facing these challenges, the Hongwu Emperor instructed his generals Xu Da and Li Wenzhong to adopt a new defensive strategy: “Defend when they come, but don’t pursue when they leave.” The Ming implemented several measures:

1. Population Relocation: Moving border residents from vulnerable areas like Shuozhou, Hongzhou, Yuzhou, Tiancheng, Baideng, Dongsheng, Fengzhou, Yunnei (Shanxi), and Yongning, Ruizhou (Hebei) to safer inland regions.

2. Military Reinforcement: Deploying additional troops to Shanxi and Hebei under commanders including:
– Cavalry leaders: Xu Da, Li Wenzhong, Gu Shi, Zhao Yong, Fu Youde, Chen De, Yang Jing, Lan Yu, Wang Bi
– Infantry commanders: Feng Sheng, Tang He, Yu Tongyuan, Zhu Liangzu, Huang Bin, He Wenhui, Li Bosheng

3. Defensive Construction: Strengthening fortifications along the Taihang and Yan Mountains, building new castles at strategic passes. In 1373, based on general Hua Yunlong’s suggestion, the Ming:
– Reinforced 121 passes along a 2,200-li defense line from Dongping to Jizhou, Miyun, and Wuhuiling
– Added troops at 9 passes along a 500-li section from Wangpingkou to Guanzuoling
– Established a new thousand-household military unit between Zijing Pass and Luhualing

The Ming military adopted the Weisuo system, with:
– 5,600 soldiers per Wei (guard)
– 1,120 per Qianhusuo (thousand-household unit)
– 112 per Baihusuo (hundred-household unit)
– 50 per Zongqi (general banner)
– 10 per Xiaoqi (small banner)

New regional military commissions were established:
– Liaodong Dusi (25 guards and 2 prefectures based in Liaoyang)
– Shanxi Dusi and Shanxi Xingdusi (28 guards and 10 thousand-household units around Taiyuan and Datong)
– Shaanxi Dusi (overseeing Shaanxi and Ningxia)
– Frontier guards in minority regions: Anding, Aduan, Handong

Transition to Strategic Defense and Limited Counterattacks

While shifting to overall defense, the Ming still launched targeted counterattacks. From June 1373, they achieved victories at:
– Shuozhou
– Baideng
– Hezhou
– Baode
– Hequ
– Huining
– Fengzhou

Though individual engagements typically resulted in only dozens to a thousand enemy casualties, these successes gradually blunted the Northern Yuan’s offensive momentum.

Wang Baobao’s forces found themselves stymied by Ming defenses in Shanxi. In November 1373, he sent troops north of Datong for another attempt. Ming general Xu Da, stationed in Daixian, dispatched Li Wenzhong and Feng Sheng to intercept. At Mao’erzhuang (near modern Fengzhen, Inner Mongolia), heavy snow forced Ming troops to retreat to Yantabao, where they captured a Yuan commander named Deng Boluotiemu’er. Interrogations revealed Yuan cavalry activity in Huairou, but a Ming detachment of 3,000 troops found only an abandoned position, capturing a Yuan official and 80 horses.

This inconclusive engagement at Mao’erzhuang marked Wang Baobao’s final attempt in Shanxi. According to the Veritable Records of the Ming太祖, Wang subsequently withdrew north to rendezvous with Ayushiridara near “Jinshan” (possibly the Altai Mountains’ Kobdo region or the Liao River-Kherlen River basin). This retreat signaled the end of major Northern Yuan counteroffensives in this theater.

Ming Limited Offensives and Stalemate

With Northern Yuan forces withdrawing, the Ming launched limited counterstrikes against Mongol nobles threatening the Beiping region, particularly those based in:
– Daning (modern Ningcheng, Inner Mongolia)
– Gaozhou (northeast of modern Chifeng)
– Hongluoshan
– Quanning

In July 1374, Li Wenzhong’s forces killed Yuan imperial prince Duoduoshili at Gaozhou’s Huoshiya. Over a month-long campaign extending to Fengzhou, the Ming captured 12 Mongol leaders and over 100 followers, plus tens of thousands of livestock. At Zhanmaoshan (north of modern Wudan, Chifeng), they killed the Luwang of the Ongud tribe and captured his consort.

Recognizing the difficulties of conquering the steppe, the Hongwu Emperor pragmatically acknowledged the de facto division: “You rule the deserts, I rule the Central Plains.” In September 1374, the Ming returned Ayushiridara’s son Maidilibala with rich gifts, establishing a stable north-south stalemate.

Military Reforms and Cavalry Development

With only about 100,000 combat-ready horses spread across thousands of li of frontier, the Ming urgently needed military reforms to counter the Northern Yuan’s concentrated cavalry forces. Key developments included:

1. Infantry Emphasis: Most Ming infantry (40% of units) were equipped with long spears (some over 4 meters), while 20% carried swords/shields, and 40% used bows/firearms. This reflected lessons from anti-cavalry warfare where long weapons provided critical advantages against shorter Mongol arms like:
– Hook spears (~1 meter)
– Javelins (some over 3 meters)
– Hui-style swords (~1 meter)

2. Chariot Defenses: The Ming deployed single-axle war chariots in north China to form mobile fortifications against cavalry, though their poor mobility remained a limitation.

3. Training Reforms: After the 1372 defeat, the Ming implemented the Regulations for Training Troops (1373), requiring:
– Regular drills and evaluations
– Annual selection of top 10% soldiers for capital reviews
– Cavalry to master horsemanship, archery, and weapons
– Military heirs to pass proficiency tests before inheriting positions

4. Horse Procurement: The Ming acquired horses through:
– Trade with Tibetans (exchanging silk, tea for horses at Hezhou)
– Pastures near Beiping (Yongping, Gu’an) and Shandong (Yidu)
– Local military breeding programs

Shift to Strategic Offensive (1380s)

By the late 1370s, rebuilt Ming forces transitioned back to offense, first targeting weaker peripheral Yuan remnants before confronting the Northern Yuan court. Key campaigns included:

1. Northwest Campaign (1377): Deng Yu and Mu Ying led 300,000 troops against Tibetan tribes connected to the Northern Yuan, pursuing them to the Kunlun Mountains, capturing:
– 10,000 prisoners
– 5,000 horses
– 130,000 cattle/sheep
Subsequently establishing Taozhou Guard in this strategic border region.

2. Northeast Operations (1381): Xu Da, Tang He, Fu Youde, and Mu Ying defeated the “Five Eastern Mongol Tribes” (Ongud, Ikires, Uriankhai, Mangghud, Jalair), crucial Yuan allies in the Khinggan region. Mu Ying’s forces reached the Kherlen River, nearly threatening the Northern Yuan court.

3. Yunnan Conquest (1381-1382): Fu Youde, Lan Yu, and Mu Ying led 300,000 troops against the Yuan Prince of Liang. After victories at Qujing (December 1381) where they captured Yuan commander Dalima and 20,000 troops, they took Kunming. The Prince of Liang committed suicide in Dian Lake (December 22, 1381). By 1382, Ming forces controlled Dali and established Yunnan Dusi.

The Climactic Battle of Buir Lake (1388)

With peripheral threats eliminated, the Ming prepared for the final confrontation. In 1387, they targeted Nakhachu, last of the Jalair leaders in Manchuria. After diplomatic efforts (including returning captive Nairahu), Feng Sheng’s 200,000-strong army compelled Nakhachu’s surrender (June 1387), neutralizing 200,000 Mongol followers.

In September 1387, the Ming appointed Lan Yu to lead 150,000 troops against the Northern Yuan court. Learning of their location near the Kherlen River-Buir Lake region, Ming forces:

1. Conducted a rapid march (April 1388), overcoming water shortages with guide Guan Tong’s help
2. Achieved complete surprise at Buir Lake (April 12, 1388), catching the Mongols preparing to move
3. Used sandstorm cover for Wang Bi’s attack, destroying the Northern Yuan army

Results:
– 7,700+ Mongols killed
– 77,000+ captured (including 2,999 nobles)
– 47,000 horses
– 4,840 camels
– 112,452 cattle/sheep
– 3,000+ carts captured
Emperor Tögüs Temür escaped but was later killed by rival Mongol prince Yesüder.

Aftermath and Legacy

The Buir Lake victory (1388) marked the Northern Yuan’s effective collapse, though Mongol resistance continued in various forms:

1. Surrenders: Some Mongol leaders like Nieqielai and Shiliemen surrendered (October 1388), leading to establishment of Quanning Guard
2. Three Guards of the Doyan: Mongol prince Ajarashiri’s surrender (November 1388) allowed creation of:
– Taining Guard (Tao’er River)
– Doyan Guard (Chuo’er-Nenjiang confluence)
– Fuyu Guard (Huyuer-Chuo’er rivers)
3. Continuing Campaigns: Ming expeditions against Yesüder (1392, 1396) and consolidation of the northern frontier under princely commanders like Zhu Di

Globally, the Ming victories coincided with:
– Russian victories over the Golden Horde at Kulikovo (1380)
– Timur’s expansion in Central Asia
Reflecting the broader decline of Mongol power following the Yuan collapse.

The Ming’s systematic elimination of Yuan remnants over twenty years (1368-1388) demonstrated their military evolution from reliance on infantry to combined arms and finally to dominant cavalry forces capable of steppe warfare. This secured the Ming dynasty’s northern borders and completed the “Expel the Mongols, Restore China” mission, though Mongol challenges would persist throughout the dynasty.