From Tribal Confederacy to Imperial Power
The Liao Dynasty (916-1125) emerged as one of history’s most fascinating political experiments—a nomadic Khitan people conquering settled civilizations while adapting their governance. In 916, the visionary leader Yelü Abaoji (Emperor Taizu) united the Khitan tribes along the Shira Muren River in modern Inner Mongolia, declaring himself “Heavenly Emperor.” This moment marked a radical departure from traditional steppe confederacies.
Abaoji didn’t just create another tribal alliance; he built a dual-administration empire. Recognizing the limitations of clan-based rule—especially with growing slave populations from conquered Han Chinese and Bohai kingdoms—he implemented Chinese-style bureaucracy while preserving Khitan traditions. His 918 capital at Huangdu (later Shangjing Linhuang Prefecture) became the empire’s nerve center, constructed by Chinese artisans like Kang Moji.
The Khitan developed not one but two writing systems during this period—large script (920) modeled on Chinese characters and small script (925) influenced by Uyghur script—demonstrating their cultural synthesis. Their military campaigns stretched from the Orkhon River to Gansu, culminating in the 926 conquest of the sophisticated Bohai Kingdom, where Abaoji established the puppet Dongdan Kingdom under his son Yelü Bei.
The Great Divergence: Slavery vs. Feudalism
Abaoji’s death in 926 triggered a power struggle exposing the empire’s central tension. Crown Prince Yelü Bei, an ardent Sinophile who collected Chinese books and painted landscapes, clashed with his brother Yelü Deguang (Emperor Taizong), who favored traditional Khitan slave society. When Deguang seized power with their mother Empress Dowager Shulü’s support, Bei fled to the Later Tang dynasty—an early warning of the cultural rift within Khitan elites.
The pivotal moment came in 937 when Later Tang general Shi Jingtang rebelled, offering the strategic Sixteen Prefectures (modern Beijing/Tianjin region) in exchange for Khitan support. This gave the Liao control over mixed nomadic-agricultural lands and nearly a million Han subjects. Taizong’s 947 sack of Kaifeng temporarily toppled the Later Jin dynasty, allowing him to proclaim the “Great Liao” empire name. Yet his attempt to transplant Khitan slavery into China failed spectacularly.
As Liao troops pillaged Central Plains cities in brutal “grass mowing” raids, local rebellions erupted. The dying emperor’s lament—”I never knew Chinese people could be so hard to rule!”—epitomized the governance challenge. His successor Emperor Shizong (Yelü Ruan) faced immediate strife, surviving three coups before being assassinated in 951 during a campaign against the Later Zhou.
Cultural Fusion Under the Midnight Sun
The Liao’s golden age dawned under Emperor Shengzong (r. 982-1031) and his remarkable mother Empress Dowager Chengtian. This era saw unprecedented cultural hybridization:
– Legal Reforms: 1012 laws prohibited arbitrary killing of slaves and equalized punishments for Khitan and Han offenders
– Urban Revolution: The new Central Capital (Zhongjing) near modern Ningcheng replicated Tang-style urban planning with Khitan ritual spaces
– Literary Flourishing: Shengzong composed poetry and studied Tang governance manuals like Zhenguan Zhengyao
– Han Elite Rise: The Han Chinese Han (Khitan-name Yelü) Dezhang family dominated southern administration as chancellors
Remarkably, this multiculturalism extended to gender roles. Khitan women retained significant authority—Empress Dowager Chengtian led armies against Song invasions and negotiated the historic 1005 Chanyuan Treaty that stabilized Liao-Song borders with annual silk/silver payments.
The Empire’s Afterlife: From Western Liao to Cultural Legacy
The dynasty’s 1125 collapse under Jurchen invasions wasn’t its true end. Prince Yelü Dashi fled westward, establishing the Western Liao (Kara-Khitai) in Central Asia (1124-1218), which surprisingly defeated the Seljuk Empire at the 1141 Qatwan Battle. Even Genghis Khan adopted Liao-style decimal military organization.
Modern echoes persist:
– Beijing’s “Liao-style” temple architecture influenced Yuan/Ming designs
– The Russian/Ukrainian word for China (Kitai) derives from “Khitan”
– Qing dynasty rulers studied Liao administrative dualism when governing Han and Mongol populations
The Liao Dynasty’s true significance lies in its demonstration that nomadic empires could successfully administer agricultural societies—a model later perfected by the Mongols and Manchus. Their delicate balance between steppe traditions and Chinese statecraft created a template for Eurasian empire-building that would resonate for centuries.