The Collapse of Tang and the Seeds of Chaos

The Huang Chao Rebellion (875-884) marked the beginning of the end for the once-mighty Tang Dynasty. Though the imperial government technically survived, it became a hollow shell of its former self. Regional military governors, known as jiedushi, seized this power vacuum to carve out their own domains through constant warfare. Two dominant figures emerged along the Yellow River: Li Keyong, a Shatuo Turk leader who gained power by suppressing peasant revolts, and Zhu Wen (later Zhu Quanzhong), a former rebel leader who betrayed the peasant cause.

Zhu Wen’s political maneuvering reached its peak in 904 when he forcibly relocated the Tang emperor to Luoyang, effectively becoming the power behind the throne. By 907, he completed his usurpation, declaring himself emperor and establishing the Later Liang dynasty with its capital at Bian (modern Kaifeng). This act formally ended the 290-year Tang Dynasty and ushered in the chaotic period historians call the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907-979).

The Five Dynasties: A Whirlwind of Regime Change

The northern Central Plains witnessed five short-lived dynasties in rapid succession:

1. Later Liang (907-923): Founded by Zhu Wen, this first post-Tang regime lasted just sixteen years before falling to…

2. Later Tang (923-936): Established by Li Cunxu, son of Li Keyong, who moved the capital back to Luoyang after defeating the Later Liang.

3. Later Jin (936-947): Created when Shi Jingtang, a Later Tang military governor, allied with the Khitan (later Liao Dynasty) to overthrow his masters. This controversial alliance ceded the strategic Sixteen Prefectures (modern Hebei and northern Shanxi) to Khitan control.

4. Later Han (947-951): Founded by Liu Zhiyuan after Khitan forces withdrew from their brief occupation of the Central Plains.

5. Later Zhou (951-960): The last of the Five Dynasties, established when Guo Wei overthrew the Later Han. This regime would implement crucial reforms before its own overthrow.

Each transition involved military conflict, political betrayal, and often foreign intervention – particularly from the expanding Khitan Liao state to the north. The average dynasty lasted barely a decade, creating chronic instability in northern China.

The Ten Kingdoms: Regional Powers in the South

While the north endured this rapid dynastic turnover, southern China fragmented into nine regional states plus one northern holdout:

1. Former Shu (907-925) and Later Shu (934-965) in Sichuan
2. Wu (902-937) and its successor Southern Tang (937-975) in the Yangtze delta
3. Wuyue (907-978) in Zhejiang
4. Min (909-945) in Fujian
5. Chu (907-951) in Hunan
6. Jingnan/Nanping (924-963) in Hubei
7. Southern Han (917-971) in Guangdong/Guangxi
8. Northern Han (951-979) in Shanxi – the sole northern kingdom

These southern regimes generally enjoyed greater stability than their northern counterparts, with some lasting over half a century. Their rulers focused on regional development rather than northern-style military expansion, leading to economic and cultural flourishing in the south.

Life Under Fractured Rule: The People’s Burden

The constant warfare and political fragmentation created immense suffering for ordinary people. Northern regimes imposed crushing taxes to fund their military campaigns:

– The “Cowhide Tax” began as forced purchase of hides for military use but evolved into an arbitrary levy
– Farmers paid taxes on tools, salt, and even crossing bridges
– An additional 20% grain tax called “Sparrow and Rat Loss” compensated for alleged storage waste
– Local officials invented creative extortions like the “Nail Removal Fee” in Songzhou

Southern states introduced new burdens like the “Head Tax” on adult males. This predatory taxation combined with constant warfare created widespread misery and stunted economic recovery from the late Tang collapse.

The Later Zhou Reforms: A Glimmer of Hope

Amid this darkness, the Later Zhou dynasty (951-960) initiated crucial reforms under two remarkable rulers:

Emperor Taizu (Guo Wei):
– Reduced excessive taxation
– Returned confiscated lands to cultivation
– Cracked down on corrupt officials

Emperor Shizong (Chai Rong):
– Redistributed monastic lands to farmers
– Melted Buddhist statues to mint currency
– Dredged critical waterways like the Bian River
– Reformed military and civil administration
– Launched campaigns that reclaimed territory from Southern Tang and Liao

Shizong’s sudden death in 959 at age 38 cut short what might have been China’s early reunification. His vision would later be fulfilled by his generals – through unexpected means.

The Song Dynasty Emerges

The Later Zhou’s collapse came through the famous “Chenqiao Mutiny” of 960. General Zhao Kuangyin, ostensibly marching to defend against Khitan invaders, was “forced” by his troops to accept imperial authority. Returning to Kaifeng in yellow robes, he established the Song Dynasty as Emperor Taizu.

Taizu’s genius lay in consolidating power without bloodshed. His “Banquet to Relinquish Military Command” (961) peacefully retired potential rivals by offering them luxurious retirements in exchange for their armies. This established Song’s enduring policy of civilian supremacy over the military.

Through administrative reforms, Taizu:
– Centralized military command under the “Three Offices”
– Appointed civilian administrators to oversee former military regions
– Established parallel oversight through “Tongpan” officials
– Required all tax revenues to flow through the central treasury

These measures finally ended the cycle of warlordism that had plagued China since the late Tang, setting the stage for Song’s eventual reunification of most Chinese territories by 979.

The Legacy of Division

The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, while chaotic, shaped China’s future in critical ways:

1. Economic Shift: Southern kingdoms developed rice cultivation and maritime trade, beginning China’s economic reorientation southward.

2. Cultural Impact: Regional courts became centers of artistic innovation, particularly in poetry and painting.

3. Strategic Consequences: The loss of the Sixteen Prefectures created a permanent military vulnerability against northern nomads.

4. Institutional Innovation: Song’s centralized bureaucracy emerged directly from lessons learned during this fragmentation.

5. Popular Memory: Stories like those of the Yang Family Generals (Yang Ye, Yang Yanzhao, Yang Wenguang) resisting the Khitan became enduring cultural touchstones.

This turbulent interregnum between the unified Tang and Song dynasties demonstrates both the costs of division and the resilience of Chinese civilization. From the ashes of collapse emerged new institutions that would sustain one of history’s most remarkable cultural and economic golden ages – the Song Dynasty.