The Primacy of Agriculture in Early Chinese Society

Throughout Chinese history, agriculture has been regarded as the foundation of civilization, with commerce and industry seen as secondary pursuits. This perspective, while sometimes criticized for undervaluing trade and manufacturing, correctly identified agriculture’s fundamental role in enabling other economic activities. The development of farming marked a revolutionary turning point in human progress, allowing for unlimited expansion of food supplies and population growth.

The transition to agricultural society brought profound changes. Humans could now settle permanently, creating the basis for material civilization and the gradual development of cultural achievements. With surplus production came increased wealth, which became a target for plunder. Labor became more valuable, leading to more frequent conflicts and increasingly complex social organizations. World civilizations emerged in particularly fertile regions, and China stood prominently among these early agricultural societies.

From Hunting-Gathering to Farming: China’s Agricultural Origins

Before agriculture became dominant, hunting and gathering were widespread practices in China. Ancient Chinese communities appear to have transitioned directly from fishing and hunting to farming, bypassing the pastoral stage seen in other regions. Mythological accounts reflect this progression:

The legendary Three Sovereigns illustrate this evolution:
– Suirenshi, who taught people to make fire for cooking, represents the hunting era
– Fuxi, associated with fishing and hunting through his creation of nets
– Shennong, the Divine Farmer who invented wooden plows, marking China’s entry into full agricultural civilization

The subsequent Five Emperors period shows further agricultural development. While records about Zhuanxu and Emperor Ku are scarce, the Yellow Emperor’s story contains elements suggesting pastoralism, though concrete evidence points to crop cultivation. The Classic of Documents mentions Yao assigning astronomers to create calendars for farming, indicating the growing importance of agricultural cycles.

The Maturation of Agricultural Techniques

Chinese farming methods evolved from extensive to intensive cultivation. Ancient land rotation systems, where fields were periodically left fallow, gradually gave way to more sophisticated practices:

The “alternating fields” (daitian) method, developed during the Han dynasty by agricultural expert Zhao Guo, divided fields into furrows and ridges. Crops were planted in furrows while soil from ridges was gradually pushed down to protect roots from wind and drought. Fields alternated annually between furrow and ridge positions.

Later came the “compartmental field” (qutian) system, dividing land into small plots cultivated in rotation. Historical texts like the Essential Techniques for the Welfare of the People praised these methods, though modern analysis suggests their success came from intensive care rather than the specific techniques themselves.

Chinese agriculture developed two main systems:
– Large-scale farming saved capital and allowed mechanization
– Small-scale farming maximized land productivity through labor-intensive methods

Chinese farmers became exceptionally skilled at small-scale cultivation through centuries of gradual improvement.

Challenges to Agricultural Progress

Three major obstacles hindered Chinese agricultural development:

1. Lack of Agricultural Expertise: Knowledgeable scholars rarely interacted with farmers, preventing practical application of innovations. Historical records show dramatic yield improvements when proper techniques were applied, but such cases remained exceptional.

2. Land Privatization: Ancient public land systems with organized irrigation gave way to private ownership, leading to fragmented plots. Public works like water management suffered as individuals prioritized private gain over communal benefits, resulting in deforestation and neglected infrastructure.

3. Exploitative Systems: Farmers lacking security in their harvests had little incentive to improve methods. Feudal pressures and predatory lending practices created conditions where mere survival became difficult, discouraging innovation.

The Social and Economic Impact of Agriculture

Agriculture’s development transformed Chinese society in multiple dimensions:

Population Growth: Stable food supplies allowed unprecedented population expansion, with historical records suggesting China’s agricultural development began at least 5,000 years ago based on chronological calculations from ancient texts.

Social Stratification: Agricultural surplus enabled specialization, leading to more complex social structures and occupational differentiation. The accumulation of wealth also increased conflict over resources.

Cultural Development: Sedentary agricultural life permitted the growth of arts, literature, and philosophical traditions. The need for seasonal tracking fostered astronomical observation and calendar systems.

Economic Systems: Agricultural productivity underpinned China’s tax systems and supported the development of trade networks for distributing surplus goods.

The Modern Transition and Legacy

The early 20th century saw attempts to transition Chinese agriculture toward larger-scale farming. A notable example occurred in 1928 when Soviet farm manager Markevich introduced mechanized plowing to Chinese peasants, demonstrating the potential of collective farming methods. This experimental success later influenced Soviet collective farm policies.

Modern challenges require balancing traditional intensive methods with new technologies. The historical resilience of Chinese agriculture suggests that its principles of careful land management and adaptive techniques remain relevant even as mechanization advances.

China’s agricultural heritage, documented in texts like the Essential Techniques for the Welfare of the People and numerous dynastic agricultural treatises, represents one of humanity’s most sustained and successful adaptations to environmental challenges. The system’s ability to feed a large population over millennia while maintaining soil fertility stands as a remarkable achievement in sustainable practice.

As China continues to modernize, this agricultural legacy provides both foundation and caution – demonstrating the value of intensive, knowledge-based farming while highlighting the need to address structural barriers to innovation. The historical interplay between technological progress, social systems, and environmental management offers enduring lessons for sustainable development worldwide.