The Arrival of Buddhism in Han China

Buddhism first entered China during the Western Han dynasty (206 BCE-9 CE), though the exact date remains uncertain. By 65 CE, during Emperor Ming’s reign in the Eastern Han, we find concrete evidence of Buddhist practice among Chinese nobility. The Chu King Ying already worshipped Buddhist icons, and three Buddhist terms – “Futu” (Buddha), “Yipusai” (upāsaka, lay devotees), and “Sangmen” (śramaṇa, monks) – appeared in imperial edicts.

A century later in 165 CE, Emperor Huan conducted Buddhist and Daoist rituals within the palace walls, marking Buddhism’s penetration into imperial circles. The following year, scholar Xiang Kai submitted a memorial discussing these palace rituals while quoting from the Sutra in Forty-Two Sections, proving this text’s circulation by the mid-2nd century. By 190 CE, regional warlord Ze Rong constructed massive Buddhist monasteries in the Yangtze region, commissioning bronze statues and attracting over 5,000 followers through tax exemptions for devotees. Simultaneously in the far south, scholar Mouzi composed Disposing of Doubts (Lihuo Lun), defending Buddhism through extensive scriptural citations, demonstrating the religion’s flourishing presence along China’s southern trade routes with India.

The Translation Movement and Intellectual Reception

During the 1st-2nd centuries, translated Buddhist texts remained fragmentary and linguistically crude, with the Sutra in Forty-Two Sections being a notable exception. The translation enterprise transformed dramatically in the 3rd century through figures like Zhi Qian in Wu and Dharmarakṣa in Jin, who produced numerous translations polished by Chinese literati assistants. This coincided with the height of Xuanxue (Neo-Daoist) philosophy among Chinese elites, making Buddhism’s teachings on emptiness (śūnyatā) and nirvana particularly appealing. Between the 3rd-4th centuries, Buddhist thought became fashionable among China’s intellectual aristocracy.

Three monumental figures established Buddhism’s firm foundation in 4th-5th century China:
– Dao’an (312-385) systemized scriptural commentaries, created the first Buddhist catalog, and established monastic regulations
– Kumārajīva (344-413) revolutionized translation with lucid vernacular prose, producing enduring versions of the Lotus Sutra, Vimalakīrti Sutra, and Diamond Sutra
– Huiyuan (334-416) founded the Pure Land tradition at Mount Lu while defending monastic independence from state control

The Rise of Indigenous Chinese Traditions

The 5th century witnessed creative syntheses of Buddhist thought with Chinese philosophical tendencies. Radical monk Daosheng (360-434), student of both Huiyuan and Kumārajīva, proposed revolutionary doctrines:
– Sudden enlightenment (dunwu)
– The non-existence of karmic retribution for good deeds
– The absence of a Pure Land
– Universal Buddha-nature, even for icchantika (non-believers)

Though initially persecuted, Daosheng’s ideas gained credence when the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra confirmed universal Buddha-nature. His thought planted seeds for later Chan Buddhism’s radical anti-ritualism.

Meanwhile, the Tiantai school emerged through Zhiyi’s (538-597) systematization of:
– Doctrinal classification (panjiao)
– Meditation-praxis (zhi-guan)

Bodhidharma’s arrival circa 470 introduced the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra-based meditation tradition emphasizing “wall-gazing” to realize one’s inherent Buddha-nature – the precursor to Chan Buddhism.

The Great Persecution and Chan’s Triumph

The catastrophic Huichang Persecution (845) under Emperor Wuzong:
– Destroyed 4,600 monasteries
– Defrocked 260,000 monastics
– Confiscated millions of acres of monastic lands

Motivated by economic, religious (Daoist favoritism), and nationalist sentiments (“why should Chinese follow foreign teachings?”), the persecution ironically strengthened iconoclastic Chan traditions that rejected material supports. Post-persecution, Chan masters like Deshan Xuanjian (782-865) and Linji Yixuan (d. 867) developed shocking “encounter dialogue” methods:
– Beating and shouting
– Irreverent “Buddha-slaying” rhetoric
– Radical non-attachment teachings

Their approaches embodied:
1. Non-reliance on words – rejecting scriptural authority
2. Shock tactics – using paradox and physicality
3. Personal verification – emphasizing direct experience over doctrine

Legacy and Historical Significance

By the 9th century’s end, Chan dominated Chinese Buddhism through:
– Rejection of Indian scholasticism
– Synthesis with Daoist naturalism
– Emphasis on everyday mindfulness
– Democratization of enlightenment

However, Chan’s success contained seeds of decline – increasing ritualization of its anti-ritualist methods and over-reliance on subjective validation. The eventual rise of Neo-Confucianism reflected intellectual fatigue with Chan’s perceived subjectivism, yet Buddhism had permanently transformed Chinese thought, leaving enduring marks on:
– Philosophy of mind
– Aesthetic theory
– Popular ethics
– Linguistic conventions

The medieval transmission created a distinctly Chinese Buddhism that would subsequently shape religious landscapes across East Asia, demonstrating China’s remarkable capacity to indigenize foreign traditions while preserving their transformative potential.