The Historical Context of King Zhaoxiang’s Reign

King Zhaoxiang of Qin stands as one of the most consequential rulers during the Warring States period, his 56-year reign (306-251 BCE) witnessing Qin’s dramatic rise from a regional power to the dominant state that would ultimately unify China. As the longest-reigning Qin monarch before the First Emperor, Zhaoxiang oversaw military campaigns that systematically weakened rival states while implementing domestic reforms that strengthened Qin’s administrative and economic foundations.

The political landscape Zhaoxiang inherited was complex. Qin had already emerged from relative obscurity under earlier rulers like Duke Xiao and King Huiwen, benefiting from the Legalist reforms of Shang Yang that created a formidable bureaucratic and military machine. However, the kingdom still faced powerful adversaries – Chu to the south with its vast territory, Qi to the east with its economic might, and Zhao to the northeast with its military reforms. The Zhou royal house, though largely ceremonial by this point, still maintained symbolic importance.

Zhaoxiang’s reign transformed this balance of power through a combination of strategic marriages, diplomatic maneuvering, and relentless military pressure. His early years saw the influential regency of Queen Dowager Xuan and her advisor Wei Ran, during which Qin consolidated control over Sichuan and expanded into Chu territory. After asserting personal rule, Zhaoxiang presided over campaigns that:

– Captured the Chu capital Ying in 278 BCE, forcing Chu’s relocation
– Defeated coalition armies at Huayang (273 BCE) and Changping (260 BCE)
– Established commanderies in newly conquered territories
– Systematically weakened Zhao after the epic Battle of Changping

By the time of his death in 251 BCE, Qin had effectively neutralized all major rivals, leaving only the mopping-up operations that would be completed by his great-grandson Ying Zheng (the First Emperor) three decades later.

The Unusual Circumstances of King Zhaoxiang’s Death

King Zhaoxiang’s passing in the sixth lunar month (July) of 251 BCE presented extraordinary challenges for Qin’s ritual officials. Ancient Chinese burial customs considered summer deaths particularly inauspicious, as the line from the text indicates: “An evil death in the sixth month cannot be properly buried.” The heat accelerated decomposition, making traditional three-day mourning periods impossible for commoners without ice chambers to preserve the body.

For a monarch of Zhaoxiang’s stature, these concerns were magnified. The text vividly describes how the king’s coffin remained in the ancestral temple for over three months – an “abnormal burial” (异葬) that required careful ritual justification. Prime Minister Cai Ze, placed in charge of funeral arrangements, faced the dual challenge of honoring the king’s legacy while countering negative interpretations from both Qin subjects and rival states.

The political stakes were high. As the text notes, Zhao and Wei were already spreading rumors that Zhaoxiang’s summer death represented divine punishment for Qin’s military aggression. Even within Qin, some whispered that the king’s demise was retribution for unjustly executing the legendary general Bai Qi after the Changping campaign. Cai Ze understood that the funeral’s execution could either reinforce Qin’s prestige or provide ammunition for its detractors.

Determining the Posthumous Title: Crafting a Legacy

One of Cai Ze’s first tasks was establishing King Zhaoxiang’s posthumous name (谥号), a critical component of Chinese royal burials that summarized a ruler’s life and achievements. The initial proposal of “Xiang” (襄) – meaning “high,” “accomplished,” or “assisting” – while appropriate, failed to capture the king’s martial vigor or counteract the inauspicious circumstances of his death.

Cai Ze’s brilliant solution was adding “Zhao” (昭), creating the compound title “Zhaoxiang” that would echo through history. As he explained to the new king Ying Zhu, “Zhao” carried four significant meanings:

1. Its sun radical (日) symbolized brilliant, awe-inspiring light
2. It meant “manifest” or “illustrious,” reflecting global recognition
3. It denoted clear discernment, as Mencius said of wise rulers
4. It matched the king’s position in the ancestral temple’s left (east) chamber

The eight-character epitaph “威烈昭彰，天下为襄” (Majestic and fierce, manifestly illustrious; All under heaven served as his chariot) further reinforced this carefully constructed image. The text shows how this title successfully transformed public perception, with white mourning banners bearing the king’s new name appearing overnight across Qin cities.

The Controversy Over Burial Location

Perhaps the most contentious issue was where to bury King Zhaoxiang. Qin tradition dictated interment near the old capital Yong, where previous rulers including King Huiwen lay. However, Zhaoxiang had left secret instructions expressing his wish to be buried east of Yong, near Xianyang – a symbolic break with tradition that Cai Ze and others saw as aligning with Qin’s eastward expansion.

Opposition came from three senior ritual officials:

1. The Grand Astrologer (太史令) argued current circumstances didn’t permit deviation from tradition
2. The Temple Guardian (太庙令) insisted ancestral temples and tombs must remain together
3. The Grand Invocator (太祝) warned through divination that an eastern burial, while beneficial short-term, would bring long-term misfortune

The text provides fascinating details about the divination process, where turtle shell cracks matched those from Duke Xian of Jin’s ill-fated campaign against the Li Rong tribe centuries earlier – a classic case of “victory without good fortune.” This ominous sign nearly derailed the eastern burial plan until the discovery of Zhaoxiang’s secret testament describing a dream where the Heavenly Emperor commanded him to “sleep in the heartland of Qin.”

The Role of the Mysterious Qing Wuzi

The resolution came through the intervention of Qing Wuzi (青乌子), a semi-legendary feng shui master whose reputation extended across the Warring States. The text offers rare insights into early Chinese geomancy practices as Qing Wuzi analyzed Qin’s terrain:

“Qin’s Mount South is the eastern terminus of the Kunlun range, foremost of China’s three great dragon veins. The Wei River swallows and spews heaven and earth as it flows to the sea. Between these two great features lies the supreme configuration.”

Qing Wuzi selected a site at Zhiyang (芷阳) where the Jing and Wei rivers converged, describing it as having the perfect balance of yin and yang forces to complement Qin’s “yin-pacifying water virtue” while receiving the “great yang abundance” of the dragon vein. His prediction that “a solitary burial gaining advantage will flourish suddenly” helped overcome remaining objections.

The Grand State Funeral

The funeral procession in late 251 BCE became one of the most spectacular ceremonies of the Warring States period. The text paints a vivid picture:

– 30,000 white-armored cavalry leading the cortege
– Royal family members and officials accompanying the coffin
– Countless commoners lining the roads with incense and offerings
– Widespread lamentations blending with the mournful sounds of xun flutes and zithers

Notably, representatives from all major states attended, including King Huanhui of Han who performed full mourning rites. This unprecedented show of respect reflected Qin’s dominant position, though as the Chu minister Lord Chunshen later remarked to a Zhao envoy, it also masked deep anxieties about Qin’s future intentions.

The Aborted Military Campaign

An intriguing subplot involves veteran general Meng Ao’s planned eastern campaign, which the funeral delayed. The text reveals tensions between Qin’s military and civil leadership, with Chancellor Cai Ze opposing immediate action due to recent natural disasters. Detailed logistics reports by the new tutor Lü Buwei (吕不韦) exposed serious deficiencies in military supplies, forcing extensive repairs that ultimately made the army stronger.

This episode highlights the bureaucratic sophistication Qin had developed by this period, with systems for:

– Categorizing storehouses (royal, national, military)
– Tracking equipment maintenance
– Managing supply chains
– Conducting rigorous audits

When King Ying Zhu suddenly died shortly after Zhaoxiang, the campaign was permanently shelved – a decision that likely extended the Warring States period by several decades.

Legacy and Historical Significance

King Zhaoxiang’s funeral marked several critical transitions:

1. Symbolic Shift in Qin’s Orientation: The eastern burial at Zhiyang physically anchored Qin’s eastward ambitions, breaking psychological ties to its western roots.

2. Institutional Maturation: The meticulous funeral preparations demonstrated Qin’s administrative capabilities that would later unify China.

3. Diplomatic Realignment: The widespread foreign attendance acknowledged Qin’s supremacy while setting the stage for final conquests.

4. Generational Change: The passing of Zhaoxiang and his contemporaries cleared the way for new leaders like Lü Buwei who would guide the young Ying Zheng to the throne.

As the last great ruler before the First Emperor, Zhaoxiang’s funeral symbolized both an ending and a beginning – the sunset of multi-state China and the dawn of imperial unity. The careful management of his burial, despite extraordinary challenges, reflected the institutional resilience that would make Qin’s ultimate victory possible.