The Historical Context of Calendar Reforms in Ancient China

In the month following the court assembly, Qin ushered in its new year. Since the Xia dynasty established its calendar system, the ancients had divided the year into twelve months. By the Warring States period, the solar year had been precisely calculated at 365 and a quarter days. However, which month should mark the beginning of the year—known as the “first month” or “year head”—varied across different states and dynasties.

The history of calendars speaks of the “Three Corrections” (San Zheng), referring to the different new year months used by the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties: the Xia correction used the first month, the Shang the twelfth month, and the Zhou the eleventh month. During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, as ritual propriety collapsed, various states began choosing their own new year months independent of Zhou traditions. For instance, the states of Qi and Song reverted to the Shang system using the twelfth month, while Jin—the largest Zhou-aligned state—maintained the Zhou system with the eleventh month. After the partition of Jin, the successor states of Wei, Han and Zhao each adopted different systems: Wei and Han followed the Shang system like Qi, while Zhao adopted the Xia system with the first month.

Though not originally a Zhou-aligned state, Qin directly inherited the Zhou heartland after becoming a founding vassal of the Eastern Zhou. The saying “Zhou and Qin share common origins” reflected this connection, leading Qin to maintain the Zhou calendar system since its founding. Later, after unifying the six states, Qin Shi Huang would implement the newly created Zhuanxu calendar with the tenth month as the new year—but that was yet to come.

In practical terms, the designation of a new year month held no astronomical significance. Regardless of which month was chosen, the year remained twelve months long. The selection reflected different agricultural traditions, customs and other cultural factors—what we might today consider a form of cultural dating system, much like modern academic or fiscal years that begin in different months for administrative purposes.

The Political Climate Surrounding Lü Buwei’s Reforms

The true significance of the new year lay in its symbolism of renewal—a fresh beginning after discarding the old. For Qin, the past year had witnessed the burial of two kings and an inconclusive court assembly under the new monarch. As the cold winter seemed to freeze all progress, with no signs of new governance emerging as the new year approached, court and commoners alike speculated while awaiting the king’s proclamation.

Though public discourse in Qin was less free than in the six eastern states, it remained far more open than in later eras. Details from the new court’s policy discussions had already spread through ministers’ retainers, traveling merchants, local officials and personal networks, reaching both urban and rural populations. The most stirring news was Chancellor Lü Buwei’s advocacy for “lenient policies to complement Qin’s legal system.” This proposal generated discussion at all levels of society, from court to countryside, officials to commoners, in the capital and beyond.

For Qin’s people, the legal system implemented over a century had strengthened the state, enriched the people and rectified customs, becoming so entrenched that even private gatherings never criticized it. When eastern scholars denounced Qin’s laws, Qin’s people would angrily defend them without exception. Yet now, hearing a high minister openly propose tempering Qin’s laws in court, the people felt strangely unsettled. For the first time, they maintained an unusual silence toward critics of Qin’s laws, permeated by an indescribable sense of unease.

As the capital remained silent for a month, this unease spawned rumors: that the queen dowager and Lord Yangquan were pressuring the new king to appoint Cai Ze as chancellor; that General Meng Ao and senior ministers strongly opposed this; that the king was torn and might appoint Lord Gangcheng instead; that Lü Buwei’s criticism of Qin’s governance was disqualifying and he should be grateful just to remain as crown prince tutor; even shocking claims that Lü Buwei had been assassinated by Lord Yangquan’s agents or had fled Qin. Yet regardless of the rumors, discussions always ended with sighs of regret—”What a pity about Lü Buwei!”

In the six eastern states, when merchants and envoys confirmed the news and spread it everywhere, reactions progressed from schadenfreude to perplexity. Initially gleeful that even Qin’s own people could no longer tolerate its “tyrannical” laws, they grew puzzled when the famously stubborn Qin people neither executed Lü Buwei nor employed him. The states of Wei, Zhao, Chu and Qi secretly dispatched envoys to recruit Lü Buwei as a multi-state chancellor like Su Qin, while merchants spread word that Qin rejected virtuous ministers while the eastern states eagerly sought talent.

Suddenly, Lü Buwei became the center of heated debate across the realm.

Lü Buwei’s Quiet Strategy Amidst the Storm

During this turmoil, Lü Buwei remained quietly secluded in his southern estate, avoiding court and visitors while burying himself in study. When his steward reported visits from eastern scholars and merchants—including major traders from Wei, Zhao, Qi and Chu claiming to settle old business—Lü Buwei simply instructed: “Tell them Lü Buwei is stubbornly devoted to Qin. Though guilty, he is at peace. Persuasion is useless.”

As the new year approached, another visitor came at dusk—a steward from General Meng’s household. Though Lü Buwei initially refused to see him, the man left a message urging him to take care of himself. That night, as heavy snow blanketed the land, the lamp in Lü Buwei’s study remained lit until dawn.

Qin welcomed this rare inaugural new year—the first of a new reign—with particular fervor. Such occasions were so uncommon that many lived their whole lives without experiencing one. King Zhaoxiang’s 56-year reign, for instance, had only one inaugural year at its start. The event took on special significance during difficult times, celebrated for its auspicious promise of renewal.

At the fourth watch, snow-covered Xianyang came alive. Lights blazed in all government offices and shops, turning the city into a dreamscape under falling snow. Drums and gongs sounded everywhere as torch-bearing processions with banners proclaiming “Auspicious New Beginning” paraded through streets lined with shops turned into impromptu taverns. People drank, feasted and cheered before joining ecstatic dancing and singing in the snowy streets, accompanied by music from countless instruments.

When the fifth watch sounded from the city gates, heralds rode out announcing the king’s decision to appoint Lü Buwei as chancellor with full authority—”New governance begins! Qin shall prosper!” The crowd erupted in cheers that shook heaven and earth: “Long live the king! Long live the chancellor!”

When officials from the crown prince’s tutor office arrived to congratulate Lü Buwei, they were shocked to find he hadn’t yet received the formal appointment. Lü Buwei laughed heartily: “On such a festive day, the people’s ecstasy shouldn’t be taken seriously. Since you’re here, join our celebration!” His wife Chen Xuan poured wine as Lü Buwei engaged them in warm conversation about their families, like an elder brother.

“Should you leave Qin, we would follow you forever!” the chief scribe suddenly prostrated.

“We all would!” the others joined.

“Nonsense!” Lü Buwei helped them up with a sigh. “After serving under me for over a year, do you still doubt my loyalty to Qin?”

“My lord…” the scribe choked up. “We veteran Qin officials feel Qin has wronged you greatly.”

“You mistake the matter,” Lü Buwei sighed deeply. “With complex court situations, isn’t the ruler’s position difficult too? I, a mere merchant, without merit or virtue, was elevated to high nobility. That Qin tolerated an outsider like me—how has Qin failed the Lü family?”

“The king’s special envoy arrives!” A sharp call interrupted them.

The Implementation of Reform Policies

After formally assuming office, Lü Buwei quietly launched his reforms during the agricultural off-season winter months when major state affairs traditionally paused. His approach focused on two key areas: thoroughly evaluating the existing bureaucratic structure and reviewing all pending government matters—nearly a thousand accumulated cases including hundreds of wrongful conviction appeals, mostly from King Zhaoxiang’s reign. Shockingly, over 130 discrepancies were found between original laws and their copies.

By spring, Lü Buwei had formulated comprehensive reform plans. His memorial to the king proposed addressing long-standing grievances before implementing new policies, emphasizing meticulous, practical work to strengthen Qin’s foundations. The first phase focused on correcting legal texts, investigating wrongful convictions, rehabilitating unjustly treated officials and nobility, and resolving palace grievances.

The king fully endorsed these proposals, presenting Lü Buwei with a white silk inscribed with eight blood-red characters: “Your new governance has my unwavering support!” along with the ancient “Zhen Qin Sword” last wielded by Shang Yang—symbolizing complete trust.

As spring arrived, Lü Buwei’s reforms quietly unfolded alongside the ceremonial plowing festival. The first step—legal text correction—proceeded smoothly under veteran supervisors, though the scale of discrepancies revealed systemic issues in legal administration despite Shang Yang’s meticulous systems.

More dramatically, Lü Buwei addressed wrongful convictions—directly challenging Qin’s foundational legal principle of “punishment without pardon.” This bold move initially caused widespread apprehension, as it contradicted centuries of legal tradition. However, by focusing on cases where noble and commoner alike had suffered injustice, Lü Buwei gradually built support for judicial reforms.

The Broader Impact and Historical Significance

Lü Buwei’s comprehensive reforms extended to military administration, standardizing recruitment, equipment production, logistics and other areas to create a more efficient, sustainable system. He appointed Meng Wu—son of respected general Meng Ao—to oversee this transformation, leveraging his administrative talents and relationships across government and military.

By autumn, initial results were evident. Wrongful convictions were being overturned, unjustly treated officials rehabilitated, and military reforms taking shape. Notably, Chancellor Cai Ze successfully resolved sensitive cases involving former officials and royal family members, including:

1. Reconstructing Shang Yang’s former residence and establishing a memorial shrine
2. Clearing the reputation of Bai Qi, the wrongly accused general
3. Allowing the Gan Mao family to return to Qin
4. Officially honoring the queen dowager while keeping her out of politics
5. Recognizing the king’s birth mother as dowager queen
6. Maintaining but limiting the authority of Lord Yangquan

These measured, culturally sensitive reforms helped build support for more substantial changes while respecting Qin’s traditions. Lü Buwei’s ability to balance innovation with continuity—addressing grievances without wholesale rejection of existing systems—demonstrated his political acumen and understanding of Qin society.

When military tensions arose with the small Eastern Zhou state, Lü Buwei advocated careful consideration rather than immediate retaliation, reflecting his strategic approach to foreign relations. Meanwhile, preparations began to bring the queen and crown prince back from Zhao—an opportunity Lü Buwei saw to normalize Qin-Zhao relations.

Through these multifaceted reforms, Lü Buwei laid crucial groundwork for Qin’s eventual unification of China. His policies addressed immediate grievances while establishing systems and processes that would enable Qin’s bureaucracy to govern an empire. Though his personal story would end tragically, his administrative legacy endured through the Qin dynasty and beyond, influencing Chinese governance for centuries.