The Grand Maritime Expedition of 221 BCE

In the early summer of 221 BCE, the imperial procession of Qin Shi Huang, China’s first emperor, divided into two columns along the eastern coastline. Two thousand elite cavalry under generals Dun Ruo and Yang Duanhe escorted supply wagons and artisans while scouting for fugitive nobles along coastal roads. The main imperial contingent embarked on what would become one of ancient China’s most spectacular naval displays – a fleet of over 200 vessels including a dozen massive tower ships (lou chuan), hundreds of warships of various classes, and nearly a hundred large merchant vessels.

These were no ordinary ships. The tower ships, technological marvels of their time, could carry nearly a hundred crew and passengers along with three months’ worth of provisions. The warships came in specialized varieties – mengchong assault ships, dayi and xiaoyi (“great wing” and “small wing”) vessels, and qiaochuan bridge ships. The merchant fleet’s capabilities had been proven during military campaigns, including a secret naval operation during the Qi conquest when Chu state used commercial vessels to supply General Tian Dan’s forces at Jimo, and later when Wang Jian’s army organized a massive grain transport fleet capable of moving 500,000 dan (approximately 30,000 tons) of provisions.

The Emperor at Sea: A Man Confronting the Infinite

Qin Shi Huang, despite suffering seasickness during his first oceanic voyage, displayed remarkable curiosity. He ordered construction of an observation deck atop the flagship’s tower, then famously rejected the enclosed design with its precious glass windows (an extreme luxury at the time), declaring: “The mighty free wind is far better than thief winds!” This moment revealed the emperor’s complex character – a ruler both pragmatic and drawn to the mysterious.

During a banquet on the observation deck with chancellor Li Si and other ministers, the emperor displayed rare levity. When Li Si, a native of Chu known for his literary flair, spontaneously composed a poem praising the sea (“Eastern sun rises from vast oceans/Receiving our hundred rivers, the sea stretches boundless”), the entire company erupted in laughter and applause. The scene recalled the ancient fable of the River God encountering the Sea God – a metaphor for confronting the infinite.

The Xu Fu Enigma: Alchemy, Exploration, and Political Strategy

The banquet was interrupted by the arrival of a disciple of Xu Fu, the enigmatic alchemist who had spent years searching for the mythical Penglai Islands and elixir of immortality. The messenger reported encountering “sea demons” – massive sharks (described as “white mountain-like creatures that could capsize entire fleets”) preventing their quest.

This triggered a pivotal discussion among the emperor’s advisors. While some like Hu Wujing questioned Xu Fu’s motives (comparing alchemists unfavorably to orthodox physicians), others saw strategic potential. Li Si immediately recognized the opportunity to use Xu Fu’s missions to search for fugitive Qi nobles hiding on coastal islands. Minister Meng Yi suggested equipping ships with giant crossbows (a technology previously used on riverine warships) to hunt the sharks while conducting reconnaissance.

The emperor, balancing skepticism with pragmatism, authorized three armed ships to escort Xu Fu while secretly charging the mission with surveying islands for hidden enemies. This decision would have far-reaching consequences beyond anyone’s imagination.

The Ceremonial Departure at Langya

At Langya Terrace, the emperor presided over elaborate ceremonies before Xu Fu’s final departure. After three days of purification rituals, Qin Shi Huang personally composed and recited a prayer to the Sea God, emphasizing Qin’s “water virtue” mandate and requesting the elixir of immortality. The ceremony included live sacrifices of oxen, sheep, and pigs thrown into the sea – a practice blending ancient shamanistic traditions with imperial ritual.

In a poignant private moment before boarding, Xu Fu warned the emperor of ominous signs in his dreams about “sea demons” and suggested sending a trusted minister back to Qin heartland to pray to mountain and river deities. The emperor assigned this duty to Meng Yi, a decision that would later prove fateful.

The Mysterious Disappearance and Historical Legacy

Xu Fu’s fleet vanished without trace. Days after departure, the three Qin warships returned reporting the alchemists had disappeared during a night stop at an unnamed island after plying the crew with wine (allegedly to prevent “cold leg disease”). The emperor, displaying unusual restraint, accepted responsibility rather than punishing the officers.

Historically, Xu Fu’s expedition became China’s first documented attempt at oceanic colonization. While the official mission failed, evidence suggests some vessels reached Japan, establishing early cultural connections. The episode remains one of history’s great mysteries – was Xu Fu a sincere spiritual seeker, a political fugitive helping anti-Qin forces, or an early maritime explorer? The Qin court’s ambiguous tolerance of alchemists despite their general suspicion of mysticism adds further complexity.

The Emperor’s Decline and a Fateful Decision

Following these events, the emperor’s health deteriorated rapidly. A critical turning point came when he dismissed his orthodox physician in favor of alchemical treatments, only to discover the “elixirs” contained dangerous animal-based stimulants. In his weakened state, Qin Shi Huang made perhaps his most consequential decision – sending Meng Yi back to the capital as his personal envoy, leaving administration to the eunuch Zhao Gao.

This choice, made out of trust rather than suspicion, would enable the power struggles following the emperor’s death. Historians have long debated why such a perceptive ruler failed to anticipate palace intrigues. Unlike later figures like Cao Cao who mastered court politics, Qin Shi Huang remained focused on grand governance rather than personal security – a trait that shaped both his achievements and the empire’s fragile succession.

The Final Journey: Hunting Sea Monsters at Zhifu

In a symbolic last act, the emperor witnessed Qin naval forces successfully hunting the great white sharks near Zhifu Island. As three warships coordinated their giant crossbows to bring down one of the massive creatures, the spectacle moved the ailing emperor to tears. This maritime triumph, set against the vastness of ocean and sky, became Qin Shi Huang’s final vision of imperial power confronting nature’s grandeur.

The episode encapsulates the Qin dynasty’s paradoxical blend of technological prowess and mystical yearning, pragmatic statecraft and spiritual quest – all unfolding along China’s ancient eastern shores where the first emperor’s terrestrial dominion met the boundless sea.