The Rise and Fall of a Favored General

Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE) was one of China’s most formidable rulers, known for his military campaigns that expanded Han territory and subdued the Xiongnu nomads. Yet, his later years were marked by disastrous decisions, particularly his unwavering trust in his incompetent brother-in-law, Li Guangli.

Li Guangli, a relative of Emperor Wu’s favored consort Lady Li, was repeatedly placed in command of Han armies despite his glaring ineptitude. His military blunders began in 103 BCE, when he lost 20,000 cavalry under Zhao Ponu’s command. Later, in 99 BCE, Li Ling’s elite 5,000 troops were annihilated. By 90 BCE, Li Guangli had squandered over 100,000 soldiers in futile campaigns. Yet, Emperor Wu, stubborn in his old age, continued to entrust him with command—a decision that would culminate in catastrophe.

The Disastrous Campaign of 90 BCE

In 90 BCE, the Xiongnu raided the Han frontier, killing local commanders. Emperor Wu retaliated by dispatching three armies: Li Guangli led 70,000 troops from Wuyuan, Ma Tong commanded 40,000 from Jiuquan, and Shang Qiucheng marched 20,000 from Xihe.

The Xiongnu, employing their classic nomadic tactics, withdrew deep into the steppe, luring the Han forces into overextension. Ma Tong’s army, finding no enemies, returned without engagement. Shang Qiucheng’s smaller force clashed with Xiongnu cavalry but survived due to the reluctance of their Xiongnu commander (possibly the defector Li Ling).

Li Guangli, however, pressed forward. The Xiongnu, contemptuous of his abilities, sent only 5,000 men under the defector Wei Lü to ambush him. Despite initial success—Li’s 2,000 auxiliary cavalry routed the Xiongnu—he recklessly pursued them northward, far beyond safe supply lines.

The Political Conspiracy Behind the Campaign

Li Guangli’s reckless advance was not born of military genius but political desperation. Before departing, he had conspired with Chancellor Liu Qumao to install Lady Li’s son, Liu Bo, as crown prince. Their plot was exposed, and Liu Qumao was executed. With his family imprisoned, Li Guangli feared returning in defeat. A subordinate urged him: “Only a great victory can redeem you.”

Thus, Li Guangli pushed deeper into Xiongnu territory. His army, though initially victorious against a Xiongnu detachment, soon mutinied. Officers plotted to overthrow him, and though Li preemptively executed the ringleader, morale collapsed. The Xiongnu encircled his exhausted forces, and Li Guangli—cowardly surrendering—abandoned his men to slaughter.

His fate was grim. The Xiongnu initially treated him well, even marrying him to a princess. But Wei Lü, jealous of Li’s status, conspired with shamans to accuse him of angering the spirits. Li was sacrificed in a ritual execution, his family already exterminated by Emperor Wu.

Emperor Wu’s Reign in Crisis

Li Guangli’s defeat was symptomatic of Emperor Wu’s declining reign. Decades of warfare, extravagant projects (like imperial tours and immortality quests), and economic mismanagement had drained the treasury. To fund his ambitions, Emperor Wu implemented harsh fiscal policies:

1. State Monopolies on Salt and Iron – Profitable but oppressive, these monopolies criminalized private production.
2. Heavy Taxation on Merchants – The “Double Tax” (算缗) and informant rewards (告缗) ruined the merchant class.
3. Price Controls and State Trade (均输) – Intended to stabilize prices, these measures often enriched corrupt officials.
4. Alcohol Monopoly (酒酤) – Short-lived due to inefficiency.
5. Selling Titles and Pardons – Wealthy criminals bought immunity, undermining justice.

Worst was Emperor Wu’s chaotic currency reforms. He debased coinage, introduced impractical “white gold” (a silver-tin alloy), and even created “deerskin money” worth 400,000 coins per hide—a policy that spurred rampant counterfeiting. Executions for forgery exceeded 100,000.

Social Collapse and Rebellion

By 99 BCE, peasant revolts erupted nationwide. Rebels like Mei Mian and Xu Bo seized towns, killed officials, and freed prisoners. Emperor Wu’s brutal suppression—executing even those who fed rebels—only worsened the crisis. Local officials, fearing the “Decree of Death” (沈命法), hid unrest rather than report it.

Even the palace was unsafe. In 88 BCE, courtier Mang Heluo, paranoid after Emperor Wu’s purge of Crown Prince Liu Ju’s allies, attempted regicide. He was thwarted by the loyal Xiongnu-born official Jin Midi.

Emperor Wu’s Late Reckoning

Facing rebellion, economic ruin, and assassination attempts, Emperor Wu finally reflected on his legacy. In 89 BCE, he issued the “Repentance Edict of Luntai” (轮台罪己诏), admitting his costly wars and vowing to prioritize agriculture and reduce burdens. He dismissed mystics, abandoned immortality quests, and promoted fiscal moderates like Sang Hongyang.

His final challenge was succession. With Crown Prince Liu Ju dead and other sons unfit, he chose his youngest, Liu Fuling (Emperor Zhao), aged seven. To prevent maternal interference, he ordered the execution of Liu Fuling’s mother, Lady Zhao.

The Rise of Huo Guang

Emperor Wu’s death in 87 BCE left power in the hands of regent Huo Guang, a shrewd and calculating statesman. Though not a military leader like his half-brother Huo Qubing, Huo Guang’s meticulousness (he reportedly walked the same path in court for decades without deviation) earned Emperor Wu’s trust.

As regent, Huo Guang consolidated power by:
– Eliminating Rivals: Co-opting or marginalizing co-regents like Shangguan Jie and Sang Hongyang.
– Symbolic Gestures: Rehabilitating the long-captured diplomat Su Wu, whose 19-year defiance of the Xiongnu became a propaganda tool.
– Centralizing Authority: Controlling the imperial seal and purging dissenters like Wang Hu, who questioned his legitimacy.

Legacy of Emperor Wu’s Reign

Emperor Wu’s reign was a paradox. He expanded Han borders, solidified Chinese identity, and centralized power, but at horrific cost: population decline, economic ruin, and social unrest. His late repentance spared the Han dynasty the fate of the Qin—collapse under tyranny.

Huo Guang’s regency stabilized the realm, but his authoritarianism foreshadowed future strife. The era’s lesson was clear: even the mightiest rulers must balance ambition with wisdom—or face tragic downfall.

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