The Rise and Fall of Lü Bu: A Mercenary in Turbulent Times

The year 198 CE marked a decisive moment in China’s late Han dynasty, as the warlord Cao Cao tightened his grip on central China. At the heart of this drama stood Lü Bu, the infamous warrior whose military prowess was matched only by his political ineptitude. Originally a subordinate to Ding Yuan, Lü Bu had betrayed and killed his patrons multiple times—including the tyrannical Dong Zhuo—earning a reputation as both a peerless fighter and an unreliable ally.

By autumn 198, Lü Bu found himself cornered in Xiapi (modern Xuzhou), besieged by Cao Cao’s forces. His former ally-turned-rival Liu Bei, recently expelled from Xu Province, had joined Cao Cao’s campaign. Meanwhile, Chen Deng, the governor of Guangling, cut off Lü Bu’s southern escape routes. Despite launching desperate sorties, Lü Bu suffered repeated defeats, eventually retreating behind Xiapi’s walls.

The Siege of Xiapi: A Collapse of Judgment

Cao Cao, sensing victory, sent Lü Bu a taunting letter: “Surrender. You cannot win.” Initially inclined to capitulate, Lü Bu was dissuaded by his advisor Chen Gong, who feared Cao Cao’s vengeance for his earlier betrayals. Lü Bu then appealed to rival warlord Yuan Shu for aid, but Yuan Shu—still resentful over a broken marriage alliance—offered only token gestures.

Chen Gong proposed a risky strategy: divide their forces, with Lü Bu attacking Cao Cao’s supply lines while Chen Gong defended the city. The plan unraveled when Lü Bu’s wife pointed out Chen Gong’s unreliability, citing his past betrayals. This domestic intervention highlighted Lü Bu’s fatal flaw: a genius for battlefield tactics but a blindness to long-term strategy.

Luck Runs Out: The End of the Flying General

For years, Lü Bu had relied on improbable luck. He rose to prominence during Dong Zhuo’s coup (189 CE), exploited divisions in Yan Province (194 CE), and seized Xu Province during infighting among Liu Bei’s forces (196 CE). Yet by winter 198, fortune abandoned him. After a two-month siege, Cao Cao diverted the Yi and Si Rivers to flood Xiapi. Starvation and dissent followed.

In a final act of betrayal, Lü Bu’s officers Hou Cheng, Song Xian, and Wei Xu captured Chen Gong and defected. Cornered at Bai Gate Tower, Lü Bu surrendered, begging Liu Bei to intercede with Cao Cao. Liu Bei, recalling Lü Bu’s past treacheries, sealed his fate with a lethal reminder: “Do you recall Ding Yuan and Dong Zhuo?” Strangled and beheaded, Lü Bu’s death in December 198 marked the end of an era.

The Aftermath: Geopolitical Reshuffling

Cao Cao’s victory had cascading effects:
1. Pacifying Xu Province: He secured the strategic region, integrating its forces.
2. Co-opting the Bandit King: The warlord Zang Ba, leader of the formidable Taishan bandits, submitted to Cao Cao, bolstering his eastern flank against Yuan Shao.
3. Eliminating Rivals: By 199 CE, Yuan Shu died in disgrace, while Gongsun Zan’s defeat left Yuan Shao unopposed in northern China.

Legacy and Cultural Memory

Lü Bu’s historical significance transcends his military failures:
– The Romance of the Three Kingdoms Effect: The 14th-century novel elevated him to “peerless warrior” status, masking his strategic blunders with legendary combat feats.
– A Cautionary Tale: His career exemplifies how raw talent, without loyalty or vision, inevitably collapses.
– The Road to Guandu: The 198–199 campaigns set the stage for the epochal Cao-Yuan showdown at Guandu (200 CE), which would determine China’s reunification path.

As the dust settled, only two powers remained: Yuan Shao, controlling four northern provinces, and Cao Cao, wielding the Han emperor’s authority and central China’s resources. The stage was set for a clash that would reshape history.