The Political Chessboard of Late Han Dynasty

The early 3rd century witnessed the accelerating fragmentation of the Han Empire, with warlords carving out their domains. In 213 CE, a pivotal moment arrived when Emperor Xian, under Cao Cao’s pressure, granted him the title of “Duke of Wei” with the coveted Nine Bestowments. This ceremonial honor masked a seismic power shift – Cao Cao now ruled a semi-independent kingdom centered in Ye City, controlling ten commanderies of Ji Province.

This development followed the controversial death of Xun Yu, Cao Cao’s chief strategist who had opposed his lord’s imperial ambitions. With this obstacle removed, Cao Cao institutionalized his breakaway state, establishing Wei’s bureaucracy complete with ministries and ancestral temples. Notably, Xun You (Xun Yu’s cousin) became Wei’s first Imperial Secretary, symbolizing how former Han loyalists were adapting to the new reality.

The Domino Effect in the Southwest

While Cao Cao consolidated his northern powerbase, ripple effects reached Sichuan. In 211 CE, under pretext of attacking Zhang Lu in Hanzhong, Cao Cao’s movements frightened Liu Zhang, governor of Yizhou (Sichuan basin). This triggered a chain reaction:

Liu Zhang dispatched Fa Zheng to invite Liu Bei into Sichuan as a military ally against potential northern threats. The decision stemmed from:
– Genuine security concerns after Cao Cao’s conquest of Liang Province
– Counsel from advisor Zhang Song, who had secretly switched allegiance to Liu Bei after being snubbed by Cao Cao
– Liu Zhang’s precarious position, inheriting power from his father Liu Yan but facing internal dissent

Liu Yan’s Controversial Legacy

The Yizhou situation traced back to 188 CE when Liu Yan, a Han imperial clansman, manipulated the new provincial governor system to establish his fiefdom. His reign featured:
– Strategic alliances with local clans like the Zhao and Dong families
– Use of religious leader Zhang Lu as buffer in Hanzhong
– Creation of the Dongzhou Army from refugee populations – a private force mirroring Cao Cao’s Qingzhou troops
– Failed imperial ambitions after mysterious fires destroyed his “imperial regalia” in 194 CE

Liu Zhang inherited this complex situation in 194 CE, immediately facing:
– Revolts by Gan Ning and other officers (who later joined Liu Biao)
– The defection of Zhang Lu after Liu Zhang executed his family
– A major rebellion by Zhao Wei in 200 CE, crushed only by the loyal Dongzhou troops

The Fatal Invitation

By 211 CE, Liu Zhang’s position remained unstable due to:
– Ongoing tensions with Zhang Lu’s theocratic state
– Resentment toward the unruly Dongzhou troops
– Diplomatic isolation after Cao Cao’s snub of envoy Zhang Song

Zhang Song’s betrayal proved catastrophic. He provided Liu Bei with:
– Detailed maps of Sichuan’s defenses
– Intelligence on Yizhou’s political factions
– A propaganda campaign promoting Liu Bei as preferable to Cao Cao

When Liu Bei entered Sichuan in 211 CE under pretext of aiding against Zhang Lu, he:
– Stationed troops at strategic points along the Jialing River
– Cultivated local support through generous policies
– Gradually turned against Liu Zhang after consolidating his position

The Fall of Yizhou

The conflict escalated in 213 CE when:
– Liu Bei suddenly attacked Liu Zhang’s northern defenses
– Key cities like Fu County defected to Liu Bei
– Zhuge Liang led reinforcements from Jing Province
– Ma Chao’s defection to Liu Bei in 214 CE shattered morale

Liu Zhang surrendered in 214 CE, his “weakness” becoming proverbial. The conquest gave Liu Bei:
– Control of China’s most defensible agricultural basin
– Access to Sichuan’s iron and salt production
– A base to declare his own Shu Han kingdom in 221 CE

Strategic Consequences

This episode transformed the Three Kingdoms landscape:
1. For Cao Cao: His northern consolidation indirectly empowered his rival Liu Bei
2. For Sun Quan: The western expansion created future conflicts over Jing Province
3. Geopolitical Balance: The tripartite division became irreversible after 214 CE

The Yizhou campaign demonstrated how personal relationships (Zhang Song’s betrayal), geographic factors (Sichuan’s defensibility), and institutional decay (Han’s powerless emperor) collectively reshaped Chinese history. Liu Bei’s patience – waiting decades for his territorial base – contrasted sharply with contemporaries’ impulsive moves, proving the enduring value of strategic timing in China’s turbulent dynastic transitions.