The Gathering Storm: Origins of the An Lushan Rebellion

The An Lushan Rebellion (755–763 CE) erupted during the twilight of Emperor Xuanzong’s reign, a period often romanticized as the golden age of the Tang Dynasty. Beneath the glittering surface of prosperity, however, festered systemic vulnerabilities. The rebellion’s architect, An Lushan, was a Sogdian-Turkic military governor who rose through the ranks by exploiting the Tang’s reliance on frontier generals.

By the 750s, the Tang military had undergone radical decentralization. The jiedushi (regional military governors) system, designed to protect the empire’s borders, had created semi-autonomous warlords. An Lushan, controlling the Pinglu, Fanyang, and Hedong circuits, commanded nearly 200,000 troops—a third of the Tang’s standing army. His rebellion wasn’t merely a personal ambition; it was the inevitable result of structural imbalances between central authority and regional militarization.

The Avalanche Begins: Key Events of the Early Rebellion

### The Lightning Offensive (November–December 755)
On November 15, 755, An Lushan’s 150,000-strong army surged south from Fanyang (modern Beijing). The Tang court, paralyzed by complacency, initially dismissed the threat. Chancellor Yang Guozhong arrogantly claimed: “Only Lushan rebels; his officers refuse to follow. His head will arrive within days.”

Emperor Xuanzong’s response revealed systemic unpreparedness:
– Improvised Militias: He dispatched generals Bi Sicheng and Cheng Qianli to recruit “Unity Armies” (tuanjie jun)—ad hoc peasant militias with no combat experience.
– Strategic Blunders: Veteran general Feng Changqing’s hastily assembled 60,000 recruits were annihilated at Luoyang, exposing the folly of relying on untrained troops.

### The Fall of the Eastern Capital
By December 12, An’s forces breached Luoyang. The defeat was catastrophic:
– Feng Changqing’s retreat to Tong Pass with remnants of his army
– Gao Xianzhi’s decision to abandon Shaanxi and torch the Taiyuan granaries
– The execution of both generals by imperial eunuch Bian Lingcheng, depriving the Tang of seasoned commanders

Cultural Fractures and Social Upheaval

### The Collapse of the Cosmopolitan Ideal
The rebellion shattered the Tang’s multiethnic harmony. An Lushan’s ethnically mixed army (Khitan, Xi, Turkic) committed atrocities that fueled Han resentment. The massacre of 7,000 Tang prisoners at Chenliu became a rallying cry for resistance.

### Grassroots Heroism vs. Court Decadence
While the aristocracy faltered, local officials emerged as unlikely heroes:
– Yan Zhenqing: The calligrapher-official organized resistance from Pingyuan, using propaganda to rally 200,000 volunteers.
– Yan Gaoqing: His seizure of Jingxing Pass temporarily severed An’s supply lines.
These efforts contrasted starkly with Emperor Xuanzong’s detachment—his infamous abandonment of Chang’an in 756 symbolized dynastic abdication of responsibility.

The Long Shadow: Legacy of the Rebellion

### Military and Political Transformations
The rebellion’s suppression came at immense cost:
– Casualties: Census records suggest 13–36 million deaths (15–30% of the population)
– Institutional Changes: The post-rebellion Tang saw permanent militarization, with jiedushi gaining hereditary control—a precursor to the Five Dynasties period.

### Cultural Memory and Historical Lessons
The rebellion became a cautionary tale in Chinese historiography:
– Centralization vs. Regional Power: Later dynasties like the Song would prioritize civilian control over military.
– Economic Impact: The shift from zu-yong-diao tax system to the Two-Tax Law reflected post-war fiscal realities.

The An Lushan Rebellion wasn’t merely a revolt—it was the convulsive end of China’s early medieval golden age. Its lessons about overextension, ethnic tensions, and military decentralization still resonate in analyses of imperial governance. The Tang survived, but as a diminished shadow of its former glory, setting the stage for China’s transition to the late imperial era.