The Fragile Balance of Power After Xiang Liang’s Death

In 208 BCE, the anti-Qin rebellion faced a crisis when its charismatic leader Xiang Liang fell in battle. The puppet Chu King Xiong Xin, previously installed by Xiang Liang, suddenly found himself holding real power. His immediate actions—consolidating military control by stripping Xiang Yu and Lü Chen of their troops while strengthening Liu Bang’s forces—revealed a calculated political strategy. Most intriguing was his decision to assign Liu Bang the coveted mission of invading the Qin heartland through the Hangu Pass, bypassing the more militarily accomplished Xiang Yu for this critical task.

This watershed moment occurred against the backdrop of two urgent military priorities: rescuing the besieged Zhao state from Qin’s elite armies (the Zhang Han and Great Wall corps), and delivering the final blow to the crumbling Qin dynasty. With rebel morale at its nadir following the deaths of both Chen Sheng and Xiang Liang, Xiong Xin needed to carefully allocate these dangerous missions.

The “Virtuous Elder” Advantage

The Chu court’s surprising preference for Liu Bang stemmed from his reputation as a “zhangzhe” (长者)—a term carrying dual significance in this context. At 48 years old, Liu Bang literally qualified as an elder compared to the 24-year-old Xiang Yu. More importantly, the title conveyed moral qualities of benevolence and restraint—qualities starkly absent in Xiang Yu, whose brutality after capturing Xiangcheng (where he massacred the entire population) had become legendary.

Contemporary accounts reinforce this perception. Wang Ling’s mother, before committing suicide to prevent her son from betraying Liu Bang, declared him a true zhangzhe. The strategist Li Yiji similarly concluded after observing various rebel leaders that only Liu Bang possessed this virtuous character. This reputation proved decisive when the Chu court selected its western expedition commander.

The Calculated Politics of Xiong Xin

Beyond Liu Bang’s personal qualities, Xiong Xin’s decision reflected shrewd political calculus. The king—formerly a puppet shepherd installed for his royal blood—saw an opportunity to weaken the dominant Xiang clan while cultivating Liu Bang as a counterbalance. By assigning Xiang Yu the more perilous northern campaign (as deputy to the favored courtier Song Yi) and giving Liu Bang the potentially glorious western mission, Xiong Xin aimed to redistribute power within the rebellion.

The “Pact of King Huai” offered further incentive: “Whoever first pacifies Guanzhong shall rule it.” This promise, designed to motivate commanders during the rebellion’s low ebb, would later become a contentious political issue between Liu Bang and Xiang Yu.

Liu Bang’s Western Campaign: From Setbacks to Triumph

Liu Bang’s initial advance met with disaster at Luoyang, forcing a strategic pivot southward through Nanyang. His capture of Chenliu (through Li Yiji’s clever ruse involving a compliant local official) and the subsequent “bloodless takeover” of Nanyang demonstrated his adaptability. Critical to these successes was his willingness to heed advisors like Zhang Liang, who warned against bypassing strongholds—a mistake that could have left his army trapped between Qin forces.

The campaign’s turning point came at Yao Pass, where Zhang Liang’s psychological warfare tactics (including spreading misinformation about troop numbers and creating the illusion of overwhelming force) shattered Qin defenses. By October 206 BCE, Liu Bang accepted the surrender of Ziying—the last Qin ruler—who appeared with a rope around his neck, offering the imperial seals on the roadside, establishing a poignant ritual of dynastic surrender that would echo through Chinese history.

Governing the Conquered Heartland

Facing the temptations of Qin’s opulent palaces, Liu Bang initially succumbed before accepting Fan Kuai and Zhang Liang’s admonitions to “return to Bashang.” His subsequent “Three Articles Covenant” revolutionized Qin legalism by:
1. Simplifying the draconian legal code to three basic principles
2. Establishing mutual accountability for rebels and locals alike
3. Abolishing collective punishment—a hated Qin practice

This policy, combined with refusing local tribute to avoid burdening the population, made Liu Bang wildly popular in Guanzhong. However, his fatal mistake—blocking the Hangu Pass to prevent other rebels (especially Xiang Yu) from entering—nearly undid these gains by provoking direct confrontation with the far stronger Xiang Yu.

Legacy of a Calculated Gamble

Liu Bang’s western campaign demonstrated how political perception, strategic flexibility, and calculated risk-taking could overcome military disadvantages. While his “virtuous elder” image opened doors, it was his ability to synthesize advice (from scholars like Li Yiji and Zhang Liang) and adapt to setbacks that secured victory. The stage was now set for the coming Chu-Han contention, where these same qualities would be tested against the formidable Xiang Yu.

This pivotal chapter in the Qin collapse reveals how leadership perception, political maneuvering, and adaptive strategy could reshape dynastic transitions—lessons that would resonate throughout imperial Chinese history.