The Fall of Xiang Yu and the Scattering of His Forces

The suicide of Xiang Yu in 202 BCE marked a pivotal moment in Chinese history, ending the bitter Chu-Han Contention that had raged for nearly five years. As the dust settled on the battlefield at Gaixia, the once-mighty forces of the Western Chu found themselves leaderless and vulnerable. Xiang Yu’s elite commanders, who had previously chased Liu Bang (later Emperor Gaozu of Han) across multiple battlefields, now faced an uncertain future under the new regime.

Liu Bang, now holding supreme power as the victor, issued sweeping execution orders against Xiang Yu’s former officers. This purge served dual purposes – eliminating potential threats to his newly established Han dynasty while also satisfying personal grudges from years of bitter warfare. Yet amidst this bloody reckoning, two cases stand out for their striking contrast: the pardon of Ji Bu, who had caused Liu Bang considerable military setbacks, and the execution of Ding Gong, who had once spared Liu Bang’s life.

The Remarkable Survival of Ji Bu

Ji Bu’s story represents one of the most fascinating survival narratives from this turbulent period. As one of Xiang Yu’s most capable generals, Ji Bu had repeatedly defeated Liu Bang’s forces, making him a prime target for post-war retribution. When the execution orders came, Ji Bu adopted an extraordinary strategy for survival – disguising himself as a slave.

The transformation was thorough and humiliating: his head was shaved, an iron collar fastened around his neck (a punishment known as “kunqian”), and he was dressed in coarse clothing. Hidden among other slaves belonging to a Zhou family, Ji Bu was transported to the home of Zhu Jia, a renowned knight-errant in the Lu region. Zhu Jia immediately recognized Ji Bu’s true identity but chose to protect him, instructing his son: “Concerning farm work, listen to this slave. You must eat with him.”

Zhu Jia then traveled to the capital to lobby on Ji Bu’s behalf through Teng Gong (Xiahou Ying), Liu Bang’s trusted charioteer and confidant. His arguments were masterfully crafted to appeal to Liu Bang’s political interests rather than simple mercy:

1. Loyalty to one’s lord is a subject’s duty – Ji Bu’s actions against Liu Bang were simply following Xiang Yu’s orders
2. It would be impossible to kill all of Xiang Yu’s former officers
3. Pursuing personal vendettas would damage the emperor’s reputation
4. Driving talented men like Ji Bu to join enemies like the Xiongnu or Southern Yue would create future threats

Liu Bang, recognizing the wisdom in these points, not only pardoned Ji Bu but appointed him to official positions, eventually promoting him to General of the Palace Guard. Ji Bu would later play a crucial role in advising against Empress Lü’s proposed campaign against the Xiongnu, demonstrating his value to the Han court.

The Tragic Fate of Ding Gong

In stark contrast to Ji Bu’s story stands the tragic tale of Ding Gong, Ji Bu’s maternal uncle and another of Xiang Yu’s generals. During the Battle of Pengcheng, Ding Gong had pursued and nearly captured Liu Bang, only to spare him after Liu Bang’s famous plea: “Must two brave men destroy each other?”

Confident in this past mercy, Ding Gong boldly approached Liu Bang after the war, expecting rewards. Instead, Liu Bang ordered his execution, declaring: “Ding Gong was disloyal to his lord Xiang Yu. It was Ding Gong who caused Xiang Yu to lose the empire.” He further decreed that future subjects should not emulate Ding Gong’s behavior.

This execution appears particularly puzzling when compared to the treatment of Xiang Bo, who had repeatedly helped Liu Bang (including during the famous Hongmen Banquet) and was later enfeoffed as a marquis. The key difference likely lay in the circumstances of their assistance – while Xiang Bo helped Liu Bang discreetly, Ding Gong had first humiliated him by forcing desperate actions (including allegedly pushing his children from a carriage) before showing mercy.

The Case of Zhongli Mo: Betrayal by a Friend

Another significant figure among Xiang Yu’s generals was Zhongli Mo, considered by strategist Chen Ping as one of the four most trusted subordinates of Xiang Yu (along with Fan Zeng, Long Ju, and Zhou Yin). After Xiang Yu’s death, Zhongli Mo sought refuge with his old friend Han Xin, now King of Chu.

When Liu Bang suspected Han Xin of rebellion and summoned him to court, Han Xin faced a dilemma. Advised that presenting Zhongli Mo’s head might appease the emperor, Han Xin confronted his friend. Zhongli Mo’s dying words – “You are no gentleman” – before his suicide highlighted the moral compromises of the era. Han Xin’s subsequent arrest and demotion to Marquis of Huaiyin demonstrated that sacrificing Zhongli Mo brought no security.

The Political Calculus Behind the Purges

Liu Bang’s seemingly contradictory treatment of Xiang Yu’s former officers reveals a sophisticated political strategy. The pardon of Ji Bu served multiple purposes: it demonstrated imperial mercy, co-opted talented individuals into the new regime, and set an example of how former enemies could become loyal subjects. As Zhu Jia had astutely argued, valuing loyalty as an abstract principle benefited the new emperor more than punishing its specific manifestations under the previous regime.

Conversely, Ding Gong’s execution served as a warning against situational loyalty. By punishing the man who had spared him, Liu Bang sent a clear message that subjects must demonstrate unwavering allegiance to their current sovereign, regardless of past relationships. This distinction between abstract loyalty and personal favors became foundational to Han political philosophy.

The Broader Context: Transition from Qin to Han

These individual cases occurred against the backdrop of China’s transition from the short-lived Qin dynasty through civil war to Han consolidation. The question of how to treat former adversaries plagued all regime changes in Chinese history. Liu Bang’s approach combined pragmatism (retaining useful talent like Ji Bu) with ideological messaging (executing Ding Gong to emphasize loyalty).

The early Han period also saw the rebellion of Zang Tu, King of Yan, who may have feared similar treatment to Xiang Yu’s officers. His revolt in 202 BCE and subsequent defeat created an opportunity for Liu Bang to install his childhood friend Lu Wan as the new King of Yan, marking a shift from enfeoffing based on merit to favoring personal connections.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The contrasting fates of Xiang Yu’s generals established important precedents for imperial China:

1. The concept that loyalty to one’s current sovereign superseded all other obligations
2. The practice of incorporating talented former enemies into new regimes
3. The dangers of relying on past favors when political winds changed
4. The tension between personal relationships and state interests in governance

Ji Bu’s subsequent service demonstrated how former adversaries could contribute significantly to the new order, while Ding Gong’s fate warned against presuming that personal kindness would translate to political capital. These cases collectively shaped the Han dynasty’s approach to political integration and established patterns that would recur throughout Chinese history.

The stories also reveal much about Liu Bang’s leadership style – his capacity for pragmatism alongside ruthlessness, his understanding of political theater, and his ability to balance personal grudges with state interests. These qualities helped transform him from a rebel leader into the founder of one of China’s most enduring dynasties.

As the Han dynasty consolidated power, these early decisions regarding Xiang Yu’s officers would echo through subsequent centuries, influencing how Chinese states dealt with defeated foes and established new political orders after periods of upheaval. The “ice and fire” fates of Ji Bu and Ding Gong became emblematic of the complex moral and political calculations inherent in times of regime change.