The Stalemate at Hong Canal

In October of the fourth year of the Han dynasty (203 BCE), the prolonged war between Liu Bang and Xiang Yu reached a critical juncture. Xiang Yu, his troops exhausted and supplies depleted, could no longer sustain the conflict. He reluctantly accepted Liu Bang’s proposal to divide the empire along the Hong Canal—west to Han, east to Chu—and released Liu Bang’s father and wife, who had been held captive for over two years.

Yet, as soon as his family was safe, Liu Bang broke the truce. He pursued Xiang Yu relentlessly to Guling, only to suffer a devastating counterattack. Despite outnumbering Xiang Yu’s forces two to one, Liu Bang’s 200,000 troops were pinned down, unable to advance. The absence of his key allies, Han Xin and Peng Yue, left him isolated. The question loomed: How could Liu Bang turn the tide? And was Xiang Yu truly doomed to defeat?

Zhang Liang’s Masterstroke: Sharing the Spoils

Frustrated by his inability to defeat Xiang Yu, Liu Bang turned to his strategist, Zhang Liang. The advice Zhang offered would reshape the course of the war.

Zhang Liang identified two critical issues:

1. The Unrewarded Allies
Han Xin and Peng Yue had not been granted the territories they deserved. Han Xin, though named King of Qi, knew the title was reluctantly given. Peng Yue, who had pacified Liang, remained a mere minister despite his contributions. Without land, they had no incentive to fight.

2. The Solution: Divide and Conquer
Zhang proposed that Liu Bang cede lands to secure their loyalty. Grant Peng Yue the region from Suiyang to Gucheng as King of Liang, and offer Han Xin the eastern lands from Chen to the coast—his homeland. “If you share the empire with them,” Zhang argued, “they will fight for you, and Chu will fall.”

The Turning Point: Alliances Forged

Liu Bang, though reluctant to relinquish territory, heeded Zhang Liang’s counsel. He dispatched envoys to Han Xin and Peng Yue, formalizing their rewards. The effect was immediate: both marshaled their forces and joined the campaign.

By November 202 BCE, the noose tightened around Xiang Yu. Han Xin’s 300,000 troops advanced from the north, while Liu Bang and Peng Yue pressed from the west. In the south, defections by Chu’s Grand Marshal Zhou Yin and the defection of Ying Bu (King of Jiujiang) severed Xiang Yu’s last lifelines.

The Siege of Gaixia: A Conqueror’s Last Stand

In December 202 BCE, the allied forces—numbering over 600,000—encircled Xiang Yu’s 100,000 weary soldiers at Gaixia. The legendary “songs of Chu” echoed through the night, a psychological blow suggesting Chu’s heartland had fallen. Demoralized, Xiang Yu drank in his tent, facing inevitable defeat.

The battle unfolded with Han Xin’s forces engaging first, feigning retreat before unleashing a crushing pincer movement. Despite Xiang Yu’s ferocity, the numerical and logistical disparity proved insurmountable.

Why Xiang Yu Lost: A Trio of Catastrophes

1. Collapsing Morale
The “songs of Chu” shattered troop morale, reinforcing the illusion that their homeland was lost.

2. Overwhelming Odds
Outnumbered six to one, Xiang Yu’s army stood little chance against the united Han coalition.

3. Starvation and Isolation
Chronic supply shortages, exacerbated by the Hong Canal truce, left his soldiers weakened and vulnerable.

Legacy: The End of an Era

Xiang Yu’s defeat marked the close of the Chu-Han Contention, paving the way for Liu Bang’s Han dynasty. His tragic end—a defiant last stand at the Wu River—cemented his legacy as a flawed but formidable warrior. Meanwhile, Zhang Liang’s strategy underscored a timeless lesson: power, to endure, must sometimes be shared.

For modern readers, the tale resonates as a study in leadership, alliance-building, and the perils of overreach. Xiang Yu’s brilliance in battle could not compensate for his political missteps, while Liu Bang’s pragmatism—guided by Zhang Liang—secured an empire. The echoes of Gaixia remind us that even the mightiest can fall when strategy outweighs strength alone.