The Merchant Who Dreamed of Kings

In the bustling markets of Handan during China’s Warring States period, an ambitious merchant named Lü Buwei made a discovery that would change history. This wealthy trader from either Yangdi (modern Yuzhou, Henan) or Puyang (in modern Henan province) – historical records differ – encountered a落魄 prince named Yiren, grandson of the Qin king and son of the crown prince. Yiren’s situation appeared hopeless: as a hostage sent to Zhao after a broken alliance, he lived in near-poverty, far down the line of succession with twenty brothers ahead of him.

Lü Buwei saw opportunity where others saw only despair. After consulting his father about potential profits (“countless” for making a king, his father advised), Lü committed his fortune to an audacious plan. He provided Yiren with funds to improve his living conditions while personally traveling to Qin’s capital Xianyang with lavish gifts. There, he targeted the childless but influential Lady Huayang, favorite concubine of Crown Prince Anguo. Through careful persuasion and the strategic deployment of gifts via her sister, Lü convinced Lady Huayang to adopt Yiren as her son and advocate for his designation as heir.

The Handan Seduction and the Pregnancy Mystery

The plot thickened during a fateful banquet in Handan. Lü Buwei had been living with a beautiful dancing girl from Zhao who became pregnant. When Yiren (now called Zichu after adopting Chu-style clothing to please his new mother) attended a drinking party at Lü’s home, he became enamored with this woman. Despite initial anger at the request, Lü ultimately presented her to Zichu, allegedly hiding her existing pregnancy. The woman gave birth to a boy named Zheng (later Qin Shi Huang) after what Sima Qian’s Records of the Grand Historian describes as an unusually long gestation period – twelve months rather than the typical nine, perhaps to conceal the child’s true paternity.

This account from Sima Qian’s biography of Lü Buwei has fueled speculation for over two millennia. The great historian, writing just over a century after the events with access to numerous sources (including potentially eyewitness accounts from Lü’s vast network of retainers), presents the story matter-of-factly. Yet questions remain: Was this historical fact, political slander against the First Emperor, or popular legend that even the meticulous Sima Qian couldn’t verify?

The Rise and Fall of a Political Architect

Lü Buwei’s gamble paid off spectacularly when King Zhaoxiang of Qin died in 251 BCE. Crown Prince Anguo ascended as King Xiaowen but died after just three days, making Zichu (now King Zhuangxiang) the ruler. True to their agreement, Lü became chancellor and marquis with vast estates. When Zhuangxiang died three years later, the thirteen-year-old Zheng became king with Lü as regent and “Second Father.”

During his decade-long regency, Lü proved an effective administrator. Qin continued expanding through military campaigns against Han, Zhao, and Wei while Lü sponsored intellectual projects like the encyclopedic Lüshi Chunqiu (Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals). This philosophical compendium blending Legalist, Confucian, Daoist and other schools reflected Lü’s vision for unified rule – one that would ultimately clash with Zheng’s pure Legalist inclinations.

The Scandal That Shook the Qin Court

As Zheng approached adulthood, Lü grew anxious about losing power. His solution – reintroducing his former lover (the king’s mother, Queen Dowager Zhao) to a fake eunuch named Lao Ai – backfired spectacularly. Lao Ai not only became the queen’s lover but allegedly fathered two children and eventually plotted rebellion. When Zheng crushed the revolt in 238 BCE, the investigation led back to Lü.

Though possibly uninvolved in the coup, Lü’s earlier actions doomed him. Stripped of office in 237 BCE and exiled, his continued influence among visiting scholars worried Zheng. Facing further banishment to Sichuan in 235 BCE, Lü chose suicide by poison instead. The king then purged Lü’s associates, eliminating any remaining threat from the once-powerful minister.

Legacy of a Historical Enigma

The paternity question surrounding China’s first emperor remains unresolved. Modern scholars debate whether Sima Qian recorded fact or repeated politically motivated rumors (Qin Shi Huang’s harsh policies made him an easy target for posthumous slander). The twelve-month pregnancy detail suggests either biological improbability or clever cover-up. Lü Buwei’s undeniable role as political kingmaker makes the story plausible yet unprovable.

Beyond the sensational aspects, the episode reveals crucial Warring States dynamics: the rising influence of merchant classes, the fluidity between states during this era, and the complex interpersonal politics behind Qin’s unification. Lü’s intellectual legacy through the Lüshi Chunqiu also represents an alternative vision for imperial rule that might have softened Qin’s harsh Legalism had Zheng embraced it.

Ultimately, the Lü Buwei-Zheng story encapsulates the intrigue, ambition and calculated risks that characterized China’s journey from warring states to unified empire – a tale where personal relationships and state politics became inextricably intertwined on the path to creating history’s first centralized Chinese state.