The Rise and Fall of Factions in the Ming Dynasty

In the second lunar month of 1528, the renowned Neo-Confucian philosopher and statesman Wang Yangming was called back into government service. His return was not merely due to public demand but also a consequence of shifting power dynamics within the Ming court, particularly the political missteps of Gui E, a key figure in the Jiajing Emperor’s inner circle.

The political landscape of the early 16th century was dominated by the aftermath of the Great Rites Controversy (1521–1524), a bitter dispute over imperial succession rituals that had fractured the court into opposing factions. The victorious faction, led by Zhang Cong and Gui E, had consolidated power by purging supporters of the former Grand Secretary Yang Tinghe. Yang Yiqing, a seasoned administrator, was reinstated as Grand Secretary with their backing, further marginalizing Yang Tinghe’s allies.

The Li Fuda Scandal: A Political Trap

In 1526, the court was rocked by the Li Fuda Affair, a scandal that exposed the deep divisions between rival factions. Li Fuda, a former rebel officer with ties to the martial arts and occult practices, had taken refuge in the household of Guo Xun, the Marquis of Wuding—a staunch ally of Zhang Cong and Gui E. When Li was accused of treason, Yang Tinghe’s faction seized the opportunity to implicate Guo Xun, hoping to weaken their opponents.

Zhang Cong and Gui E swiftly counterattacked. Using their control over the Censorate and Ministry of Personnel, they dismissed the accusing censor and manipulated the trial to clear Guo Xun. The verdict—that Li Fuda was merely a sorcerer—outraged the Hanlin Academy, a bastion of Yang Tinghe’s influence. Their protests only played into Zhang and Gui’s hands, revealing the extent of lingering opposition.

The Purge of Yang Tinghe’s Faction

Seizing the moment, Zhang Cong and Gui E convinced the Jiajing Emperor that Yang Tinghe’s faction remained a threat. A brutal purge followed: over fifty officials were implicated, with a dozen beaten to death and the rest exiled. The Hanlin Academy, a key institution for grooming future leaders, was purged of Yang Tinghe’s sympathizers and restaffed with Zhang’s allies.

Yet their triumph was short-lived. The emperor, wary of allowing another dominant faction to emerge, abruptly replaced Zhang Cong with the reluctant Fei Hong as Grand Secretary. Within months, Fei was ousted again, and Yang Yiqing resumed leadership—but the power struggle was far from over.

The Yao Mo Crisis and the Rebellion in Guangxi

Meanwhile, in Guangxi, another crisis unfolded. The ambitious chieftain Cen Meng had expanded his domain through bribery and military force, defying Ming authority. When accusations of rebellion reached the court, Gui E recommended Yao Mo, a loyalist with prior experience in Guangxi, to suppress the unrest.

Yao Mo’s heavy-handed campaign crushed Cen Meng’s forces, but his draconian policies—executing surrendering rebels and banning indigenous gatherings—sparked a new uprising led by Cen’s former generals, Lu Su and Wang Shou. As Guangxi descended into chaos, Yao Mo’s failures became a liability for Gui E, who faced accusations of poor judgment in his appointment.

Wang Yangming’s Return and the Search for Stability

With Yao Mo’s reputation in tatters, Gui E turned to Wang Yangming, whose philosophical and administrative prowess offered a solution. Wang’s earlier success in suppressing rebellions in Jiangxi made him the ideal candidate to restore order in Guangxi. His return symbolized both a pragmatic choice and a shift away from brute force toward a more conciliatory approach.

Legacy and Historical Reflections

The events of 1526–1528 reveal the volatile nature of Ming politics, where factional rivalries and personal ambitions often overshadowed governance. Zhang Cong and Gui E’s ruthless tactics secured temporary dominance but also sowed instability. The Guangxi rebellion underscored the dangers of excessive centralization and cultural insensitivity in frontier regions.

Wang Yangming’s eventual involvement marked a turning point, emphasizing moral governance and local engagement—a philosophy that would influence later Ming administrators. Yet the broader lesson of this era is the peril of political vendettas: the court’s infighting weakened the empire, leaving it vulnerable to the crises that would plague the dynasty in later decades.

In modern terms, the Ming court’s struggles echo timeless themes of power, accountability, and the consequences of ideological rigidity—a cautionary tale for any era of governance.