The Polygamous Norm of Chinese Emperors
For centuries, Chinese emperors maintained sprawling harems as symbols of imperial privilege. The Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE) established formal hierarchies, with the “Book of Rites” prescribing 126 consorts for the Son of Heaven. Subsequent dynasties expanded this dramatically—Qin Shi Huang kept 1,000 palace women, while Emperor Wu of Jin (265–290 CE) reportedly housed 10,000. Tang Emperor Xuanzong’s harem reached 40,000. Against this backdrop of institutionalized polygamy, Emperor Wen of Sui (r. 581–604 CE) and his wife Empress Dugu Qieluo’s apparent monogamy became a historical anomaly that demands examination.
The Making of an Unconventional Marriage
The union between Yang Jian (later Emperor Wen) and Dugu Qieluo in 557 CE was politically strategic yet grew into a genuine partnership. At 17, Yang was already a general; 14-year-old Dugu came from the powerful Xianbei Dugu clan. Contemporary records describe Dugu as “gentle yet astute,” but a pivotal incident revealed her political acumen. When a court diviner secretly warned Yang about his “imperial aura”—a death sentence if discovered—Dugu recognized their dynasty-toppling potential. She extracted a blood oath: Yang vowed to have “no children with other women,” an unprecedented constraint for a future emperor.
Co-Rulers in a Divided Era
The couple navigated the treacherous Northern Zhou court as a team. Dugu orchestrated their daughter’s marriage to the crown prince despite Yang’s objections, a move that later positioned Yang as regent when the emperor died young. During the 580 coup, Dugu advised delaying Yang’s provincial assignment—a decision that allowed him to seize power as regent. The “History of Sui” records their governing style: Dugu accompanied Yang to court daily, reviewing policies from behind a screen. Officials dubbed them the “Two Sages,” a rare acknowledgment of shared rulership.
The Iron Grip of the Jealous Empress
Dugu enforced monogamy with draconian measures:
– The Killing of Consort Wei: When Yang slept with a granddaughter of rival general Yuchi Jiong, Dugu had the woman executed and issued palace-wide warnings.
– Political Purges: Minister Gao Jiong’s dismissal stemmed from calling Dugu “just a woman” during mediation.
– Cultural Impact: Officials avoided concubines to curry favor, creating a façade of monogamy among elites.
Yet cracks appeared. The “History of Sui” confirms Yang favored Consort Chen, a captured Chen Dynasty princess, even during Dugu’s lifetime—proof their monogamy wasn’t absolute.
Death and Legacy: A Cautionary Tale
After Dugu’s death in 602, the 62-year-old emperor indulged with Consorts Chen and Cai, possibly hastening his 604 demise. His dying words—”Had the empress lived, I wouldn’t be here”—reveal complex regrets. Their “separate-chamber” tomb arrangement symbolizes enduring tension.
Historians debate whether this was true monogamy or clever image-making. While Western Wei’s Emperor Yuan Qin (r. 551–554) maintained sole consort Yuwen Yunying, and Jin’s Emperor Xuanzong (r. 1213–1224) refused to remarry after his wife’s death, the Sui case remains unique for its duration and political dimensions.
Modern Reassessment
Recent scholarship suggests Dugu’s “jealousy” masked astute power consolidation:
– Preventing rival clans from gaining influence through imperial marriages
– Ensuring her sons’ succession without half-sibling conflicts
– Modeling Confucian marital ideals to legitimize the new dynasty
The Sui partnership—part love story, part power struggle—challenges stereotypes about gender dynamics in imperial courts, offering rich material for reinterpreting female agency in Chinese history.