The Strategic Prelude to Han’s Downfall

In 230 BCE, a pivotal moment unfolded in ancient China’s Warring States period when Zheng Guo, the engineer responsible for constructing a massive irrigation canal, reported its completion to King Ying Zheng of Qin. This seemingly mundane infrastructure project masked deeper geopolitical currents that would soon reshape the Chinese world.

The canal’s origins traced back to a desperate ploy by the weakening state of Han, who had sent Zheng Guo to Qin under the guise of offering hydraulic engineering expertise. Han’s rulers hoped this massive public works project would drain Qin’s resources and delay its expansionist ambitions. Yet by the time the canal was completed, the scheme had spectacularly backfired. Rather than exhausting Qin, the project had strengthened its agricultural base while Han’s position had deteriorated dramatically.

The Silent Subversion of Han

Ying Zheng and his chancellor Li Si operated with methodical precision. While the formal campaign against Han appeared to begin in 230 BCE, groundwork had been laid three years earlier through a sophisticated strategy devised by the strategist Wei Liao. This involved systematic corruption of Han’s officials through bribes and honey traps, effectively hollowing out the state’s governance from within.

The tipping point came in 231 BCE with the Nanyang Incident. This strategic Han territory, traditionally a thorn in Qin’s side during previous campaigns, was surrendered to Qin by its garrison commander who had grown disillusioned with Han’s corrupt court. Ying Zheng immediately recognized Nanyang’s value as a forward base for invasion.

The Final Conquest of Han

Li Si recommended Neishi Teng, a brilliant military administrator, to consolidate Qin’s hold on Nanyang. For three years, Teng meticulously prepared the region – restoring order, winning local support, and building military capacity. When the invasion order finally came, Han’s ruler An remained in astonishing denial even as Qin armies massed on his borders.

The campaign unfolded with brutal efficiency. As Neishi Teng’s forces besieged the capital Xinzheng, King An continued hosting banquets, dismissing reports of the invasion as absurd. Only when Qin soldiers breached the city walls did reality dawn. The last Han ruler was captured and transported to Qin in a prisoner’s cart, where Ying Zheng lectured him on the inevitability of unification. After 93 years as an independent kingdom, Han was reorganized as Qin’s Yingchuan Commandery.

Zhao: The Formidable Adversary

With Han subdued, Ying Zheng turned his gaze northeast to Zhao – a state that evoked complex emotions. Though he harbored childhood trauma from his years as a hostage in Zhao’s capital Handan, he respected its martial culture. Zhao had pioneered military reforms under King Wuling’s “Hu clothing and cavalry archery” policies, creating the Warring States’ first formidable cavalry corps.

Zhao’s resilience was legendary. Even after the catastrophic defeat at Changping in 260 BCE that decimated its army, Zhao remained a formidable opponent. By 229 BCE, Qin’s general Wang Jian had been conducting gradual campaigns to weaken Zhao when a game-changing figure emerged – the brilliant general Li Mu.

The Military Genius of Li Mu

Li Mu represented the pinnacle of Zhao’s military tradition. His innovative tactics had previously annihilated Xiongnu cavalry using infantry formations. Against Qin, he perfected a defensive-offensive strategy that frustrated Wang Jian’s advances. The Battle of Feixia (234 BCE) showcased his brilliance – while Qin general Huan Yi attacked Feixia expecting Li Mu to relieve the siege, Li instead captured Qin’s undermanned base camp, forcing Huan Yi into a disastrous retreat.

Wang Jian frankly admitted to Ying Zheng: “Without Li Mu, Zhao would already be conquered.” Faced with this stalemate, Qin turned to its most reliable weapon – subterfuge.

The Deadly Game of Intrigue

Ying Zheng authorized Wei Liao’s operatives to target Zhao’s corrupt minister Guo Kai. The bribe was straightforward – gold in exchange for spreading rumors of Li Mu’s treason. King Qian of Zhao, himself a product of court intrigue, proved susceptible to these whispers. Despite Li Mu’s warnings that his removal would mean Zhao’s collapse, the king ordered his arrest.

The final confrontation was tragicomic – royal enforcers arrived with the king’s seal but hesitated before the revered general. Only the ambitious officer Yan Ju dared move against Li Mu, who was killed while attempting to flee. With Zhao’s last competent defender eliminated, the path lay open for Qin’s final assault.

The Inevitability of Unification

These conquests demonstrated Qin’s multifaceted approach to unification – combining military might with psychological warfare and political subversion. Han fell through its own corruption and complacency, while Zhao succumbed to court intrigue despite its military prowess. Ying Zheng’s vision of a unified empire, once considered impossibly ambitious, was becoming reality through this combination of force and cunning.

The elimination of these key states sent shockwaves through the remaining Warring States. As Ying Zheng declared while standing before Han’s captured ruler: “What destroyed you wasn’t Qin, but the tide of history.” The age of multistate equilibrium was ending, making way for China’s first imperial dynasty.