The Salt Economy and Social Tensions in Yuan China

In the mid-14th century, the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) faced mounting crises. One of its most pressing issues was the mismanagement of the salt monopoly, a system dating back to the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE). Salt was not just a commodity—it was the lifeblood of state revenue. By the Yuan era, regions like Taizhou in Jiangsu hosted 36 state-controlled salt fields, including Baiyuchang, the hometown of the future rebel leader Zhang Shicheng.

Yet while the salt trade enriched the state, it impoverished many. Between 1276 and 1315, salt prices skyrocketed sixteenfold under Yuan policies. For laborers like Zhang—a lowly salt transporter—this meant exploitation by both wealthy merchants and corrupt officials. Salt police routinely humiliated smugglers, despite relying on their bribes. The Yuan legal code prescribed brutal punishments: 70 lashes for minor offenses and exile to desolate frontiers (like Siberia) for larger violations.

The Spark of Rebellion: From Smuggler to Warlord

Zhang Shicheng’s transformation from smuggler to revolutionary began in 1353. After years of abuse, he and 17 comrades famously swore a blood oath over saltwater and steamed buns, declaring, “We live like dogs. Better to die fighting than endure this.” Armed only with salt-carrying poles, they ambushed and killed a salt police chief, redistributed looted grain to the poor, and burned local elite homes—a calculated act of “robbing the rich to aid the poor” that won immediate peasant support.

Unlike contemporary rebels like Fang Guozhen or Liu Futong—who commanded existing networks—Zhang’s movement was grassroots. His forces swelled from 18 men to 10,000 within a month. By March 1353, they captured Taizhou, shocking the Yuan court.

The Siege of Gaoyou: A Turning Point

The Yuan response was initially diplomatic. They dispatched Li Qi, the respected governor of Gaoyou and a 1333 imperial examination top graduate, to negotiate. Zhang pretended to surrender but imprisoned Li, later using him as a human shield during the Yuan siege. Li’s defiant last words—”My knees are iron; how could they bend to bandits?”—became legendary.

The conflict reached its climax in October 1354 at Gaoyou. Yuan chancellor Toqto’a, fresh from suppressing Red Turban rebels, besieged Zhang’s forces. Just as defeat seemed inevitable, political infighting led to Toqto’a’s sudden recall by the Yuan emperor, allowing Zhang to counterattack. This improbable reprieve cemented his regional power.

Cultural Subversion: The Naming of a Rebel

Zhang’s original name, Zhang Jiusi (“Nine-Four”), reflected his humble origins. Seeking legitimacy, he enlisted scholar Shi Nai’an (later famed for Water Margin) to rename him. Shi’s choice—Shicheng—appeared noble but covertly mocked him. Derived from Mencius’s unpunctuated phrase “Shi, cheng xiao ren ye” (“A scholar, truly a petty man”), it became a veiled insult. When Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang later discovered this, it fueled his paranoia toward intellectuals, contributing to his infamous literary purges.

Legacy: Between Bandit and Folk Hero

Zhang ruled Jiangsu for a decade, establishing a short-lived Wu regime before falling to Zhu Yuanzhang in 1367. His legacy is contested:

– Economic Impact: His rebellion exposed Yuan fiscal failures, accelerating its collapse.
– Cultural Memory: Folk traditions celebrate his Robin Hood-like redistribution, while official histories vilify him.
– Military Lessons: His rise demonstrated how localized grievances, when ignored, could destabilize empires.

The story of Zhang Shicheng remains a gripping chapter in China’s transition from Mongol rule to the Ming Dynasty—a tale of salt, blood, and the unpredictable tides of rebellion.