The Rise and Fall of Mongol Rule in China

The Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), established by Kublai Khan, marked the first time China was ruled entirely by a non-Han ethnic group—the Mongols. Initially, the dynasty brought relative stability, expanded trade along the Silk Road, and fostered cultural exchanges between East and West. However, by the mid-14th century, widespread discontent emerged due to oppressive policies, economic mismanagement, and ethnic discrimination against the Han Chinese. The Mongol rulers, once formidable conquerors, soon found themselves besieged by rebellion and infighting.

Liu Bowen (Liu Ji), a scholar and strategist who later served the Ming Dynasty, observed the Yuan’s decline from his retreat in Qingtian. His writings, particularly Yu Li Zi, dissected the dynasty’s fatal flaws: relentless internal conflicts, misplaced priorities, and a failure to unify against external threats.

The Fatal Divisions: Power Struggles and Betrayal

### The Revolt of Arughtu Temür

One of the most catastrophic blunders occurred in 1360 when Emperor Toghon Temür (Yuan Shundi) ordered Arughtu Temür, a northern military commander, to suppress southern rebellions. Arughtu, a proud Mongol aristocrat and imperial examination laureate, harbored disdain for the weak emperor. Instead of quelling revolts, he seized the opportunity to amass power. Upon consolidating his forces, he audaciously demanded the imperial seal, declaring:

> “Our ancestors entrusted you with the empire, yet you have brought chaos. Hand me the seal, and I will show you how to rule.”

Enraged, the emperor dispatched loyalist forces under Tugh Temür, but they were swiftly crushed. Arughtu’s rebellion was eventually quelled in 1361, but the damage was irreversible—the Yuan’s military credibility had shattered.

### The Rivalry of Bolad Temür and Köke Temür

The Yuan’s last hope rested on two generals: Bolad Temür, a seasoned commander, and Köke Temür (Wang Baobao), the adopted son of the late Chaghan Temür. Their rivalry became a microcosm of the dynasty’s dysfunction.

– 1363: Bolad encroached on Köke’s territory, sparking open warfare.
– 1364: Köke appealed to the emperor, who stripped Bolad of his titles. In retaliation, Bolad allied with Tugh Temür and marched on the capital, forcing the emperor to execute a trusted eunuch, Pu Buhua, to appease him.
– 1365: Köke finally defeated Bolad, but the Yuan’s military was left exhausted.

Liu Bowen likened these conflicts to “nine-headed birds fighting over food, unaware it all goes to the same stomach.”

Cultural and Social Decay

### The Eunuch’s Role and Court Factions

Pu Buhua’s execution revealed deeper fractures. As a key ally of Crown Prince Ayushiridara, his death symbolized the triumph of factionalism over governance. The prince, competent but thwarted by his father’s passivity, clashed with Bolad, further destabilizing the court.

### The Neglect of Governance

While warlords battled, rebellions like the Red Turban Movement spread unchecked. The Yuan’s failure to address peasant grievances—heavy taxes, corruption, and natural disasters—eroded its legitimacy. Liu Bowen noted how the dynasty, “like a crumbling house,” lacked the “master craftsmen” (able leaders) to repair itself.

Legacy: Lessons from the Yuan’s Downfall

### The Cost of Disunity

Liu Bowen’s parable of “Bian Zhuang stabbing tigers” illustrated the folly of infighting:

> “When rivals weaken each other, a third party reaps the reward.”

Indeed, the Ming Dynasty emerged from the chaos, with Zhu Yuanzhang capitalizing on the Yuan’s disarray.

### The Philosophy of “Zhu Yi” (Mastering Unity)

Liu critiqued the Yuan’s lack of “zhu yi”—focus and cohesion. Unlike Neo-Confucianists who advocated moral concentration, he emphasized pragmatic unity:

– Chess Analogy: In Yu Li Zi, he described a chess master defeating opponents despite their “crowd-sourced” strategies, underscoring that “a thousand foxes cannot defeat one tiger.”
– Historical Parallels: The 400,000 Zhao soldiers massacred at the Battle of Changping (260 BCE) served as a warning: disorganized masses fall to disciplined foes.

Conclusion: Echoes in Modern Leadership

The Yuan’s collapse underscores timeless truths:

1. Internal strife invites external threats.
2. Effective governance requires meritocracy, not factionalism.
3. Unity is a strategic imperative, not an ideal.

As Liu Bowen lamented, the Yuan’s “beams had rotted” beyond repair. Its story remains a cautionary tale for empires—past and present.