The Mongol Conquest and the Jin Dynasty’s Last Stand

In the early 13th century, Genghis Khan’s Mongol Empire was rapidly expanding, dismantling long-standing dynasties across Eurasia. One of his most formidable adversaries was the Jin Dynasty of northern China, a powerful but declining empire that had once ruled over the Mongols. By 1215, the Mongols had already captured the Jin capital of Zhongdu (modern Beijing), forcing the Jin emperor, Xuanzong (Wanyan Xun), to flee south to Kaifeng. This city became the last major stronghold of Jin resistance—a heavily fortified bastion that would test the limits of Mongol military strategy.

The campaign against Kaifeng was led by General Samuqa (撒木合), one of Genghis Khan’s most trusted commanders. However, when news of Samuqa’s initial victory at Tong Pass reached the Mongol court, Genghis Khan’s reaction was unexpectedly somber. His advisor, Yelü Chucai (耶律楚材), noted the Khan’s uncharacteristic concern. The reason? Kaifeng was no ordinary target.

The Impossible Siege: Samuqa’s Tactical Challenges

Genghis Khan understood the gravity of the situation. Kaifeng was defended by at least 200,000 Jin troops, while Samuqa commanded only 10,000 Mongols—later reinforced by 20,000 additional warriors and 30,000 troops from the Western Xia (西夏) dynasty. Even with these reinforcements, the odds were daunting.

The Jin defenders, led by the stubborn general Zhuhu Gaoqi (术虎高琪), refused to engage in open battle. Instead, they adopted a strategy of total defense, sealing the city gates and weathering Mongol assaults. Samuqa, recognizing the futility of a direct attack, shifted tactics: he blockaded Kaifeng while sending raiding parties to isolate the city by capturing surrounding towns and villages.

Yet, Kaifeng’s walls held. The Mongols, masters of mobile warfare, found themselves bogged down in a prolonged siege—a scenario they usually avoided.

Political Infighting and Jin Dynasty’s Desperation

Inside Kaifeng, tensions flared. Emperor Xuanzong faced pressure from court officials who accused Zhuhu Gaoqi of cowardice for refusing to launch counterattacks. The emperor, caught between military pragmatism and political posturing, wavered. But Zhuhu Gaoqi, aware of his army’s limitations, bluntly dismissed his critics: “The censors know nothing of war!”

As food supplies dwindled, Xuanzong attempted to negotiate peace. Samuqa, humiliated by his inability to take the city, imposed harsh terms: the Jin must surrender vast territories, renounce their imperial title, and accept vassal status. Xuanzong refused, declaring that such terms would disgrace his ancestors and invite contempt from neighboring states.

The Great Withdrawal: A Tactical Masterstroke

With no clear path to victory, Samuqa faced a dilemma. Reinforcements from Jin loyalists, led by commander Xu Ding (胥鼎), threatened to encircle his forces. Recognizing the danger, Samuqa executed one of history’s most disciplined retreats—covering 800 kilometers in two months, a feat comparable to modern mechanized warfare.

The Jin, wary of Mongol deception, did not pursue. Mongol retreats were notoriously lethal, often disguising ambushes or sudden counterattacks. As one Jin officer noted, fighting the Mongols was like chasing ghosts—they could vanish or strike with terrifying speed.

Samuqa’s frustration led him to vent his fury on Pingyang (平阳), but even there, Xu Ding’s brilliant defense forced another withdrawal. By 1216, the campaign ended without a decisive Mongol victory.

Legacy: The Unfinished Conquest

Though Samuqa failed to take Kaifeng, his campaign weakened the Jin Dynasty irreparably. The Mongols had ravaged Henan, Shaanxi, and Shanxi, diverting Jin resources and enabling other Mongol generals, like Muqali, to secure victories elsewhere.

Genghis Khan welcomed Samuqa back with a grand celebration, but the war was far from over. The Jin, though battered, reinforced their defenses—buying only a temporary reprieve. Within two decades, Kaifeng would fall to the Mongols, marking the end of the Jin Dynasty.

Samuqa’s campaign underscored a critical lesson: even the mighty Mongols faced limits when confronting determined defenders in fortified cities. Yet, their adaptability and relentless pressure ensured that, in the end, no empire could withstand their rise.

The siege of Kaifeng remains a testament to the complexities of medieval warfare—where strategy, politics, and sheer endurance shaped the fate of nations.