The Rise of Rebel Forces in Late Ming China

By the late Ming Dynasty, widespread famine, corruption, and oppressive taxation had fueled peasant uprisings across China. Among the most formidable rebel leaders were Zhang Xianzhong, known as the “Yellow Tiger,” and Luo Rucai, whose forces operated in the rugged borderlands of Hubei, Shaanxi, and Sichuan. When the Chongzhen Emperor appointed Yang Sichang as supreme commander to suppress the rebellions in 1640, the rebels retreated into the mountains, anticipating a brutal campaign.

Yang Sichang, following imperial orders, prioritized crushing Zhang Xianzhong’s forces. He coordinated a multi-pronged attack, deploying Shaanxi Governor Zheng Chongjian and generals He Renlong and Li Guo’an to advance into Sichuan. However, General Zuo Liangyu, a key Ming commander, openly defied Yang’s strategy, arguing that Zhang would not retreat into Shaanxi but instead exploit Sichuan’s vulnerable plains. This disobedience foreshadowed the fractures within Ming leadership that would later aid the rebels.

The Battle of Manao Mountain: A Turning Point

On February 7, 1641, Zuo Liangyu’s forces clashed with Zhang Xianzhong’s army at Manao Mountain in Sichuan. Despite holding the high ground, Zhang’s troops were overwhelmed after fierce fighting. The Ming army captured his symbolic weapons, seals, and even family members, while his strategist Pan Du’ao was imprisoned. The Chongzhen Emperor celebrated the victory, urging Yang Sichang to press the advantage.

Yet Zhang’s resilience shone through. Though subsequent defeats at Hanxi Temple and Salt井 cost him thousands of men, he adapted by melting into the wilderness. Peasant support proved critical: locals provided supplies and intelligence while misleading Ming troops. Meanwhile, Yang’s overconfidence blinded him to the rebels’ survival tactics.

The Ming Unravels: Internal Strife and Strategic Blunders

Yang Sichang’s downfall stemmed from his inability to manage rivalries. After Manao Mountain, Zuo Liangyu grew defiant, ignoring orders to pursue Zhang. When Yang attempted to replace Zuo with He Renlong—only to reverse the decision—he alienated both commanders. This indecision exposed the Ming’s dysfunctional chain of command.

By July 1641, Luo Rucai’s forces, weakened by defeats at Fengyi坪, merged with Zhang’s remaining troops. Recognizing Sichuan’s weak defenses, the combined rebel army outmaneuvered demoralized Ming garrisons. Yang’s lament that rebels traversed “impassable terrain like flat ground” underscored his failure to unify provincial forces.

Legacy: Rebellion’s Role in the Ming Collapse

Zhang Xianzhong’s guerrilla campaign exemplified how decentralized rebellions exploited Ming weaknesses. His survival hinged on peasant aid, terrain mastery, and Ming infighting—factors that later enabled Li Zicheng’s capture of Beijing in 1644. While Zhang’s later reign in Sichuan remains controversial, his early resistance highlighted the Ming’s fatal disconnect between court and battlefield.

Today, historians view these campaigns as a microcosm of dynastic collapse: where logistical neglect and bureaucratic arrogance meet determined rebellion, even mountains cannot shield a failing regime.