The Precarious State of the Ming Dynasty in 1641

By 1641, the Ming Dynasty was in its death throes. Decades of corruption, famine, and administrative decay had left the empire vulnerable to internal revolts. Among the most formidable rebel leaders was Li Zicheng, a former minor official turned revolutionary, whose forces had already scored significant victories against Ming loyalists. The fall of Luoyang to Li’s army earlier that year sent shockwaves through the imperial court, exposing the dynasty’s crumbling defenses.

As Li’s forces advanced, Ming officials scrambled to respond. Henan’s provincial governor, Li Xianfeng, was preoccupied suppressing another peasant uprising north of the Yellow River in Huaiqing, leaving Kaifeng—a major administrative and economic hub—dangerously underdefended. When news of Luoyang’s fall reached Kaifeng’s deputy garrison commander, Chen Yongfu, he rushed reinforcements to the fallen city, further weakening Kaifeng’s already thin defenses.

Li Zicheng’s Lightning Strike on Kaifeng

Seizing the opportunity, Li Zicheng devised a daring plan: a surprise attack on Kaifeng. On February 9, 1641, he led a force of 3,000 elite soldiers and 30,000 conscripts in a grueling three-day forced march from Luoyang. By noon on February 12, his army stood before Kaifeng’s walls and immediately launched an assault.

The city’s defenders, led by imperial censor Gao Mingheng, were determined to avoid Luoyang’s fate. Unlike other Ming nobles, Zhou Wang Zhu Gongxiao, the Prince of Zhou stationed in Kaifeng, took an uncharacteristically pragmatic approach. Desperate to save his life and wealth, he emptied part of the royal treasury, offering bounties for rebel scalps: 50 taels of silver for a severed head, 10 taels for an arrow kill, and similar rewards for injuries inflicted. This mercenary tactic rallied desperate locals to the walls, stiffening Kaifeng’s resistance.

Despite the rebels’ ferocity—arrows reportedly “studded the walls like porcupine quills”—the surprise attack failed. Meanwhile, Chen Yongfu, learning of the assault, raced back to Kaifeng, arriving on February 16 via the city’s water gate.

A Costly Mistake and Strategic Retreat

On February 17, Li Zicheng made a fatal error. While scouting Kaifeng’s defenses, he was spotted and shot in the left eye by a Ming archer. Though he survived, the injury left him permanently blind in that eye. Compounding the crisis, reports arrived that Ming reinforcements—led by generals Zuo Liangyu and Yang Wenyue—were advancing toward Kaifeng.

Outnumbered and with their leader wounded, Li’s commanders recognized the peril. With just 3,000 seasoned troops and 30,000 irregulars, they risked encirclement. Wisely, Li ordered a withdrawal west to Dengfeng, Mixian, and Songxian, ending the first siege of Kaifeng.

The Li-Ruo Alliance and the Battle of Xiangcheng

By July 1641, Li Zicheng’s fortunes shifted again. Luo Rucai, a rival rebel leader, split from Zhang Xianzhong and joined forces with Li in Xichuan, Henan. Though Luo was older, he deferred to Li, recognizing his growing influence. Contemporary accounts note their complementary strengths: “Li’s troops excelled in attack; Luo’s men were unmatched in battle—together, they were like two hands.”

This alliance alarmed Ming commanders. When Li and Luo marched toward Cheng’an (a symbolic target near the Ming ancestral tombs), Shaanxi’s governor-general Fu Zonglong scrambled to intercept them. However, the rebels, learning of Cheng’an’s reinforced defenses, feinted westward, luring Fu into a trap near Xiangcheng.

In September, Fu’s 20,000-strong force, combined with Yang Wenyue’s troops, pursued the rebels. Li and Luo set an ambush: while a decoy force crossed the Ying River, their main army hid in pine forests. The Ming troops, believing the rebels were retreating, let their guard down. When soldiers dispersed to loot villages, the rebels struck.

Chaos ensued. Generals He Renlong and Hu Dawei fled, abandoning Fu and Yang. After days of siege, Fu attempted a breakout but was captured. In a final act of defiance, he thwarted Li’s attempt to trick Xiangcheng’s defenders into opening their gates, leading to his execution.

The Aftermath and Historical Legacy

The Xiangcheng victory was a turning point. Li’s forces seized weapons, absorbed defectors, and grew stronger. Contemporary texts mention Li commissioning propaganda like The Nine Questions and The Nine Exhortations to rally support, though these documents are now lost.

The sieges of Kaifeng and Xiangcheng exposed the Ming’s fatal weaknesses: disorganized leadership, reliance on mercenary tactics, and crumbling morale. For Li Zicheng, these campaigns cemented his reputation as the Ming’s most formidable foe—a prelude to his eventual capture of Beijing in 1644.

Today, these events symbolize the chaotic end of an era. Li’s blend of audacity and tactical cunning, juxtaposed with Ming desperation, offers timeless lessons about the fragility of power and the tides of revolution.