The Rise and Crisis of the Great Western Kingdom

In the turbulent final years of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), peasant uprisings erupted across China, challenging the crumbling imperial order. Among the most formidable rebel leaders was Zhang Xianzhong, whose Great Western Kingdom (Daxi) emerged as a major power in Sichuan by 1644. However, by 1645, the tides had turned against Zhang’s regime. The collapse of Li Zicheng’s Shun Dynasty in the north and the fall of the Southern Ming’s Hongguang regime shifted China’s political landscape, with the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty rapidly consolidating power.

Zhang Xianzhong’s control over Sichuan weakened as local gentry and Ming loyalists launched counter-rebellions, shrinking his territory. Meanwhile, the Qing, eager to subdue all resistance, pursued a dual strategy: military campaigns against remaining Ming loyalists and overtures to co-opt rebel leaders like Zhang.

The Qing’s Coercive Diplomacy and Zhang’s Defiance

In early 1645, the Qing governor of Shaanxi, Meng Qiaofang, attempted to persuade Zhang’s northern Sichuan governor, Wu Yuying, to defect. When Zhang discovered Wu’s plot to collaborate with the Qing, he executed the traitor, signaling his refusal to surrender. Later that year, another Qing official, Tong Yanghe, sent envoys with offers of amnesty—Zhang dismissed them outright.

Frustrated by his defiance, the Qing regent Dorgon shifted tactics. In November 1645, he appointed General He Luohui as “Pacification General of the West” and issued a proclamation urging Zhang’s surrender, promising wealth and titles. Simultaneously, a massive Qing army mobilized to invade Sichuan. Yet, anti-Qing resistance in Shaanxi delayed their advance, buying Zhang time—though not enough to reverse his deteriorating position.

The Betrayal of Liu Jinzhong and the Unraveling of Daxi

The Great Western Kingdom’s downfall accelerated in 1646 with the defection of Liu Jinzhong, one of Zhang’s top generals. Fearing punishment after one of his subordinates fled to the Southern Ming, Liu deserted with his troops, eventually allying with bandit groups and secretly guiding Qing forces into Sichuan.

By then, Zhang had grown increasingly isolated. Facing rebellions and supply shortages, he abandoned Chengdu in August 1646, burning the city before retreating southward. His army, though still numbering in the tens of thousands, was demoralized and unprepared for the Qing’s rapid advance.

The Ambush at Phoenix Mountain

In late November 1646, Qing scouts located Zhang’s camp near Xichong County. Under the command of Prince Hooge, a detachment led by elite Manchu banners marched 300 li (about 100 miles) in a single night, catching Zhang’s forces off guard.

Eyewitness accounts, including those from European missionaries in Zhang’s camp, describe his shocking demise: ignoring repeated warnings of the Qing approach, Zhang rode out with a handful of guards to inspect the threat. A single arrow struck his chest, killing him instantly. Leaderless, the Daxi army collapsed, with tens of thousands slaughtered in the rout.

The Legacy of the Great Western Kingdom

Though Zhang Xianzhong died and his regime fell, his followers—notably generals Sun Kewang, Li Dingguo, and Ai Nengqi—retreated to Yunnan, where they formed a rump state allied with the Southern Ming. For nearly two decades, these remnants waged a fierce resistance against the Qing, with Li Dingguo becoming one of the Ming loyalists’ most celebrated commanders.

### Why Did the Great Western Kingdom Fail?

1. Strategic Isolation: Zhang’s indiscriminate repression in Sichuan—driven by paranoia toward the local elite—alienated potential allies, including peasants. His inability to distinguish between class enemies and ordinary civilians eroded his support base.
2. Neglect of Governance: Focused on military expansion, Zhang failed to stabilize Sichuan’s economy or restore agriculture, leaving his regime dependent on unsustainable plunder.
3. Complacency: Like Li Zicheng, Zhang underestimated the Qing’s resolve. His dismissal of intelligence reports and personal recklessness at Phoenix Mountain sealed his fate.

Conclusion: A Rebellion’s Echo in History

Zhang Xianzhong’s rebellion was a product of Ming China’s systemic collapse, yet his failure underscored the limitations of peasant revolts in the face of disciplined adversaries. While the Qing ultimately triumphed, the Daxi resistance exemplified the fierce, if fractured, opposition to Manchu rule—a theme that would recur throughout the early Qing era. Today, Zhang remains a polarizing figure: a brutal warlord to some, a defiant anti-Qing hero to others. His story is a poignant chapter in China’s transition from Ming to Qing, where ambition, betrayal, and miscalculation shaped the empire’s destiny.