The Fragile Southern Ming Court in Crisis

When the Chongzhen Emperor hanged himself on Coal Hill in April 1644 as rebel forces stormed Beijing, the Ming dynasty appeared finished. Yet within weeks, remnants of the imperial family established the Hongguang regime in Nanjing, proclaiming Zhu Yousong as emperor. This Southern Ming court inherited a catastrophic situation: the peasant rebel Li Zicheng controlled northern China while the Manchu Qing forces, having already breached the Great Wall, now occupied Beijing.

Desperate to survive, the Hongguang regime pursued a disastrous strategy of “allying with the barbarians to suppress the bandits” (联虏平寇). This policy reflected both wishful thinking about Qing intentions and deep-rooted class prejudice against peasant rebels. The court prioritized destroying Li Zicheng’s Shun dynasty over defending against the existential Qing threat—a fatal miscalculation that historian Lynn Struve calls “the great strategic blunder of the Southern Ming.”

Assembling the Fateful Embassy

On June 3, 1644, former military commander Chen Hongfan volunteered to lead an embassy north. By July, the delegation took shape:

– Left Maodi: Promoted to Vice Minister of War, this principled Confucian scholar reluctantly joined, hoping to recover his mother’s remains from Beijing
– Chen Hongfan: Elevated to Grand Tutor of the Heir Apparent, this supposed “Qing expert” was secretly collaborating with the enemy
– Ma Shaoyu: A mid-ranking official promoted to Court Imperial Supervisor

The embassy carried extravagant gifts—100,000 taels of silver, 1,000 taels of gold, and 10,000 bolts of silk—along with noble titles for defectors like Wu Sangui. Most revealing was the letter addressed to the “Khan of the Northern Kingdom,” revealing the court’s delusional belief in equal diplomatic footing with the ascendant Qing.

Clashing Worldviews in Beijing

Arriving in October after the Qing’s formal enthronement of the child emperor Shunzhi, the embassy immediately faced humiliation. Qing officials:

1. Refused to accept the Ming “state letter,” calling Hongguang an illegitimate regime
2. Confiscated all gifts while insulting the envoys
3. Blocked visits to Ming imperial tombs, sneering: “We’ve already cried for your dead emperor”

The ideological gulf proved unbridgeable. The Qing saw themselves as inheritors of the Mandate of Heaven, while the Ming envoys clung to the fiction of a temporary “barbarian” occupation. Left Maodi’s defiant retort—”The south still has vast territories and numerous troops, don’t underestimate us”—fell on deaf ears.

Chen Hongfan’s Treachery

Unknown to his colleagues, Chen Hongfan had been conspiring with the Qing since June. Historical archives reveal his secret correspondence with Dorgon, the Qing regent, offering to:

– Betray his fellow envoys
– Recruit Southern Ming generals like Huang Degong and Liu Liangzuo
– Provide military intelligence

After the embassy’s dismissal, Chen arranged for Left and Ma’s capture while returning south to spread disinformation, telling General Gao Jie that Qing forces were unstoppable and that two other commanders had already surrendered.

The Aftermath and Historical Reckoning

The embassy’s catastrophic failure exposed Southern Ming weaknesses:

1. Strategic Blindness: The court fatally misread Qing expansionist ambitions, believing they would be satisfied with northern territories
2. Internal Divisions: While officials like Shen Chenquan warned about the Qing threat, leaders like Shi Kefa remained obsessed with destroying peasant rebels
3. Moral Collapse: The ease with which Chen Hongfan and others defected revealed the regime’s shallow support

Left Maodi emerged as the sole heroic figure. Imprisoned for a year, he rejected all Qing offers until his execution in June 1645—weeks after the Hongguang regime’s collapse. His steadfastness became legendary, with poets like Gu Yanwu praising his “unyielding bamboo” spirit.

Lessons from a Diplomatic Debacle

This episode offers enduring insights about failed states:

– The Perils of Wishful Thinking: The Southern Ming prioritized fighting class enemies (peasant rebels) over defending against the true existential threat
– Diplomacy Without Leverage: Extravagant gifts and titles meant nothing without military strength to back negotiations
– The Corruption of Collapse: As the regime weakened, self-interest trumped loyalty, with officials like Chen Hongfan becoming “political entrepreneurs” switching sides

Modern parallels abound, from French collaborationists in 1940 to Afghanistan’s Ghani government misreading Taliban intentions. The 1644 embassy stands as a timeless case study in how dying regimes misdiagnose threats and accelerate their own demise through strategic folly.