The Fragile Alliance: Southern Ming’s Last Stand in the South

In the turbulent decade following the Qing conquest of Beijing in 1644, the Southern Ming regime emerged as the last bastion of resistance against Manchu rule. By 1653, the military situation had reached a critical juncture. Li Dingguo, one of the most capable Ming loyalist generals, established his base in Guangxi while attempting to coordinate a grand strategy with Zheng Chenggong (Koxinga), the maritime power based in Fujian. This proposed pincer movement—with Li attacking from the west and Zheng from the east—represented the Southern Ming’s best chance to reclaim Guangdong province and potentially reverse their declining fortunes.

The historical context reveals why this moment was so pivotal. The Yongli Emperor’s court, nominally leading the Southern Ming resistance, had become increasingly isolated. Military defeats had pushed loyalist forces into China’s southwestern frontier, while Zheng Chenggong’s naval dominance along the coast created an unusual situation where two separate anti-Qing power centers existed—one land-based in the southwest, one sea-based in the southeast. Their failure to effectively unite would prove disastrous for the Ming cause.

The Failed Pincer Strategy: Li Dingguo and Zheng Chenggong’s Missed Opportunity

Between 1653–1654, Li Dingguo implemented an ambitious military campaign from his Guangxi base. He actively coordinated with anti-Qing militia forces across Guangdong and Guangxi (collectively known as Liangguang), while repeatedly attempting to persuade Zheng Chenggong to commit his main forces for a joint campaign. Contemporary documents show Li’s urgent messages crossing the contested territories, pleading for coordinated action.

Zheng’s response proved lukewarm at best. While he maintained nominal loyalty to the Yongli Emperor, Zheng prioritized consolidating his own power base in Fujian over committing to risky joint operations inland. This strategic hesitation had devastating consequences. Without Zheng’s full participation, Li’s forces—though initially successful in several engagements—lacked the strength to achieve decisive victory. The critical window for recapturing Guangdong closed as Qing reinforcements poured into the region.

By 1656, the strategic situation forced Li to make a fateful decision. With the Yongli Emperor’s position in Guizhou becoming increasingly precarious, Li led his main force to escort the emperor to Kunming in Yunnan. This relocation, while temporarily securing the imperial court, effectively abandoned Guangxi to Qing forces. Only General He Jiuyi’s garrison in Nanning remained as a significant Ming presence in the region.

The Collapse of Guangxi: A Chain Reaction of Defeats

The withdrawal of Li’s main forces triggered a rapid deterioration of the Ming position in Guangxi. Qing commanders, recognizing their opportunity, launched coordinated campaigns throughout 1658–1659. Nanning fell on the 27th day of the third lunar month in 1659 (April 18 by Western calendar), marking a turning point in the Qing consolidation of southern China.

Several Ming commanders continued resistance from remote strongholds:
– General Chen Qice held out in Shangsi Prefecture until his capture
– General Luo Quanbin operated from Zhongzhou
– Minister Guo Zhiqi and others sought refuge in Vietnamese border regions

The Qing employed a sophisticated strategy combining military pressure with political persuasion. As recorded in Governor Yu Shiyue’s memorials, they implemented targeted amnesty offers that gradually eroded Ming resistance. By late 1659, many former Ming officers—including the prominent Luo Quanbin—had surrendered. This psychological warfare proved as effective as military campaigns in dismantling Ming resistance.

The Last Bastions: Heroic Resistance and Tragic Endings in Guangdong

While Guangxi fell, several remarkable pockets of resistance persisted in Guangdong under increasingly impossible conditions. Three figures emerged as symbols of this final phase:

Wang Xing (The Embroidered Needle):
Originally a local rebel, Wang transformed into one of the Ming’s most determined defenders. His stronghold at Wencun village became legendary for its defenses and symbolic importance. Even after being ennobled as the Earl of Guangning in 1657, Wang continued leading from the front lines. The final siege in 1659 saw Qing forces under Shang Kexi employ brutal starvation tactics. Wang’s dramatic suicide—after ensuring the safety of his family and subordinates—marked the end of organized resistance in western Guangdong.

Deng Yao:
Operating from Longmen near the Vietnamese border, Deng maintained naval resistance until 1660. His eventual flight to Vietnam and subsequent betrayal by Vietnamese authorities illustrated the collapsing international support for the Ming cause.

Guo Zhiqi:
As the highest-ranking Ming official in the region (serving as Grand Secretary and Minister of both Rites and War), Guo coordinated resistance networks until his 1661 capture. His execution in Guilin the following year removed one of the last links between scattered Ming loyalists.

The International Dimension: Vietnam’s Pivotal Role

The shifting stance of Vietnam’s Nguyen rulers significantly impacted the Ming resistance. Initially providing sanctuary to Ming refugees, Vietnamese authorities gradually shifted allegiance to the Qing as Ming prospects dimmed. This transition, documented in both Vietnamese and Qing records, severed critical supply routes and safe havens. The 1658 incident where Vietnamese forces attacked Deng Yao’s retreating troops demonstrated this dramatic policy reversal.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The collapse of Ming resistance in Guangxi and Guangdong between 1653–1661 marked more than just military defeat. It represented:
1. The final severing of connections between southwestern Ming forces and Zheng Chenggong’s maritime resistance
2. The demonstration of Qing adaptability in combining military, political, and psychological warfare
3. The tragic heroism of figures like Wang Xing, whose stories became part of local folklore
4. The complex interplay between Chinese resistance movements and Southeast Asian polities

Modern historians continue debating the “what if” scenarios—particularly Zheng Chenggong’s failure to fully commit to Li Dingguo’s proposed joint campaigns. The episode remains a poignant case study in the challenges of coordinating resistance movements across divided leadership and vast geographies.

The memorials, battle reports, and personal accounts from this period—preserved in collections like the Ming-Qing Historical Archives—provide extraordinary detail about these final years of organized Ming resistance on the mainland. They reveal not just the broad strokes of history, but the human dimensions of loyalty, sacrifice, and impossible choices during the traumatic Ming-Qing transition.