The Brief Reign of Emperor Tongzhi

Emperor Tongzhi, born Zaichun in 1856, ascended the Qing Dynasty throne at the tender age of five following the death of his father, Emperor Xianfeng. His reign (1861–1875) was marked by the dominance of his mother, Empress Dowager Cixi, who ruled as regent behind the scenes. Though Tongzhi formally took control in 1873 at 17, his reign was cut short when he died suddenly at 19, leaving historians puzzled about the true cause of his demise.

The Official Cause: A Deadly Bout of Smallpox

The imperial court’s official records state that Emperor Tongzhi succumbed to smallpox, a highly contagious and often fatal disease in the 19th century. On October 30, 1874, court physicians Li Deli and Zhuang Shouhe documented symptoms consistent with smallpox: fever, dizziness, chest congestion, and an emerging rash. His tutor, Weng Tonghe, noted in his diary that the emperor had developed “the auspicious signs of smallpox”—a euphemism reflecting the belief that surviving the disease conferred divine favor.

Empress Dowager Cixi, ever the political strategist, even rewarded her favorite minister, Ronglu, in an attempt to “ward off misfortune” through ceremonial gestures. Yet, despite these efforts, Tongzhi’s condition deteriorated rapidly.

The Scandalous Alternative: Syphilis and Forbidden Pleasures

Beyond the official smallpox diagnosis, whispers of a more scandalous cause persisted: syphilis. Historical accounts suggest that Tongzhi, resentful of his mother’s overbearing control, avoided the imperial harem and instead sought entertainment in Beijing’s brothel district, the infamous “Eight Great Alleys.”

Medical records hint at complications beyond smallpox. By early November, physicians noted symptoms such as lower back pain, kidney deficiency, and “toxic dampness invading the meridians”—terms some modern experts interpret as signs of syphilis. If true, the court would have concealed the diagnosis to avoid scandal, as sexually transmitted diseases carried immense stigma in imperial China.

The Psychological Toll: A Mother’s Cruelty and a Son’s Despair

Tongzhi’s physical decline was exacerbated by psychological torment. His mother, Cixi, was notorious for her ruthless grip on power. When the emperor discussed succession plans with his empress, Alute, Cixi intercepted their conversation, destroyed his draft edict, and physically assaulted Alute. This violent confrontation reportedly sent the already frail emperor into a fatal downward spiral.

The Role of the Empress: A Controversial Influence

Some accounts, such as those in The Unofficial History of the Qing Dynasty, suggest that Empress Alute may have inadvertently hastened Tongzhi’s death. According to these records, the emperor, during a brief recovery, begged to visit the residence of another consort, Fengxiu. Alute reluctantly approved the visit, after which Tongzhi’s health sharply declined. Whether out of guilt or political pressure, Alute reportedly regretted her decision deeply.

A Power Struggle to the Bitter End

Even on his deathbed, Tongzhi was not spared from his mother’s political machinations. As he lay gravely ill, Cixi summoned high-ranking officials—not to discuss his care, but to secure her return to power. She pressured ministers to draft a decree reinstating her regency, forcing the dying emperor to endorse it. The stress of this power play is believed to have worsened his condition, leading to his death shortly thereafter.

Legacy: A Reign Overshadowed by Tragedy

Tongzhi’s death marked the end of a short and turbulent reign. His successor, Emperor Guangxu—another puppet under Cixi’s control—continued the dynasty’s decline. Modern historians debate whether Tongzhi could have been an effective ruler had he lived longer, free from his mother’s interference.

Modern Relevance: Lessons from a Young Emperor’s Downfall

The mystery surrounding Tongzhi’s death reflects broader themes of power, family conflict, and the fragility of leadership. His story serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of unchecked authority and the human cost of political ambition. Even today, his reign remains a poignant chapter in China’s imperial history—a fleeting moment of potential cut short by illness, intrigue, and the relentless will of Empress Dowager Cixi.

Conclusion: Unraveling the Truth

While smallpox remains the most documented cause of death, the possibility of syphilis, psychological trauma, and political strife cannot be dismissed. Emperor Tongzhi’s tragic end underscores the complexities of Qing court life, where personal health, familial strife, and imperial politics were inextricably linked. His brief life and mysterious demise continue to captivate historians, offering a window into the turbulent final century of China’s last dynasty.